REESE  LIBRARY  ^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


,.Glc7Jl. 


5     ^cressioiiH  Nn.yv^UA^.     CLiss  No. 


Stubies 

in 

Hmerican  Bbucation 


BOOKS    BY 

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Stubies 


(It 


Hmerican    iSbucation 


BY 


ALBERT   BUSHNELL   HART,  Ph.D. 


OF  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


Author  of  ^''Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal  Government^ 

'■''  Practical  Essays  on  American  Government"  ^' Guide 

to  the  Study  of  American  History,''  etc. 


1Flew  l^orft 

LONGMANS,   GREEN,   AND   CO 

AND   LONDON 
1895 


Copyright,  18^5,  by 
LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND  CO. 


IPrefacc* 


The  six  essays  which  make  up  this  volume 
have  been  prepared  at  various  times  and  deal 
with  a  variety  of  subjects.  Nevertheless  there 
is  between  them  a  thread  of  connection  and  re- 
lation. They  all  are  based  upon  two  funda- 
mental ideas:  that  education  is  substantially 
one  from  beginning  to  end,  so  that  the  same  or 
similar  methods  may  be  applied  throughout; 
and  that  teachers  of  every  grade  and  subject 
have  a  common  interest  and  may  learn  from 
each  other.  They  are  the  outcome  of  a  desire 
to  make  some  small  contribution  to  the  great 
common  fund  of  experience. 

That  so  many  of  these  essays  deal  with  the 
problems  of  the  primary  and  secondary  schools 
needs  no  apology.  Every  American  must  feel 
an  interest  in  the  systems  which  reach  the  great- 
est number  of  pupils,  and  lay  the  foundations 
for  later  study.  A  short  service  in  the  Cam- 
bridge School  Committee  has  taught  some- 
thing of  the  aims  and  practical  difficulties  of 
primary  and  secondary  education. 

By  the  courtesy  of  the  editors  of  the  Acad- 

(V) 


VI  IPreface* 


emy  (Syracuse),  Atlantic^  Chautauquan^  Educa- 
tional Review^  and  School  Review^  articles  are 
here  reprinted  which  first  appeared  in  those 
journals ;  but  the  opportunity  of  revision  has 
not  been  neglected,  and,  so  far  as  possible, 
each  essay  has  been  brought  down  to  date. 

Albert  Bushnell  Hart. 


Cambridge,  Mass.,  January  15,  1895, 


^ablc  of  Contents. 


PAGE. 

I.    Has  the  Teacher  a  Profession? i 

School  Review,  January,  1893. 

II.    Reform  in  the  Grammar  Schools 22 

Educational  Review,  October,  1892. 

III.  University   Participation  —  a  Substitute  for 

University  Extension 49 

Educational  Review,  June,  1893. 

IV.  How  to  Study  History 75 

Chautauquan,  October,  1893. 

V.    How  TO  Teach  History  in  Secondary  Schools.      91 
Academy  (Syracuse),  September,  October,  1887. 

VI.    The  Status  of  Athletics  in  American  Col- 
leges  122 

Atlantic  Monthly,  July,  1890. 

INDEX. 147 


(Vii) 


I. 

Das  tbe  Ueacbet  a  ptofessfon? 


Nearly  fifty  years  ago  an  eminent  professor 
in  New  England,  then  occupying  a  chair  of 
History,  got  into  a  controversy  over  a  depre- 
ciatory article  which  he  had  written  about  Kos- 
suth, the  popular  hero  of  the  day ;  though  his 
criticism  was  probably  just,  the  feeling  aroused 
was  so  strong  that  it  was  deemed  expedient  to 
transfer  him  to  the  chair  of  "  Natural  Religion 
and  Moral  Philosophy."  A  squib  expressed  the 
popular  disapproval  as  follows :  "  Professor  B. 
was  made  a  Professor  of  History  because  he 
did  not  know  history ;  but  is  now  a  Professor 
of  Morals  because  he  cannot  tell  the  truth." 

The  anecdote  illustrates  the  lack  of  confi- 
dence of  Americans  in  professional  teachers ; 
but  the  same  feeling  exists  toward  many  other 
professions.  For  instance,  when  it  became  nec- 
essary to  erect  a  capitol  for  the  nation  in  1800 
it  was  designed,  says  Henry  Adams,  "  by  Dr. 
William  Thornton,  an  English  physician,  who 
in  the  course  of  two  weeks'  study  at  the  Phila- 

(I) 


trbe  Zcacbcfe  profeeetom 


delphia  Library  gained  enough  knowledge  of 
architecture  to  draw  an  exterior  elevation.  But 
when  Thornton  was  forced  to  look  for  some 
one  to  help  him  over  his  difficulty,  Jefferson 
could  find  no  competent  native  American,  and 
sent  for  Latrobe.  Jefferson  considered  himself 
a  better  architect  than  either  of  them,  and  had 
he  been  a  professor  of  materia  medica  at  Co- 
lumbia College,  the  public  would  have  accepted 
his  claim  as  reasonable."  Wherever  we  turn 
we  find  the  same  notion,  that  even  in  techni- 
cal matters  one  man  is  as  good  as  another; 
house-painters  design  buildings,  surveyors  build 
bridges,  and  war  correspondents  write  history. 
Even  when  we  touch  the  most  delicate  and  com- 
plicated of  all  human  devices,  the  machinery  of 
government,  we  find  deeply  embedded  in  the 
popular  mind  the  principle  of  rotation  in  office ; 
that  is,  Americans  hold  not  only  the  belief  that 
the  inexperienced  man  is  as  good  as  the  expert, 
but  also  the  conviction  that  he  is  a  great  deal 
better. 

For  this  state  of  things  there  are  two  principal 
causes.  In  the  development  of  a  new  country 
the  settlers  have  had  to  be  masters  of  many 
trades;  and  the  man  who  could  clear  land, 
break  oxen,  build  a  wagon,  shoe  a  horse,  repair 
a  roof,  keep  a  tavern,  and  settle  a  dispute,  not 
unnaturally  felt  that  he  could  also  invent  cotton 
machinery,  make  laws,  and  teach  school.    Even 


MStVWBt   of   j£XPCtt6* 


the  division  and  subdivision  of  labor  has  not  as 
yet  been  effectual  in  breaking  up  this  idea  that 
any  man  can  do  anything.  The  other  cause  is 
one  which  tends  rather  to  grow  than  to  dimin- 
ish ;  it  is  hard  for  Americans  to  understand  that 
it  is  possible  for  men  to  be  politically  equal 
while  intellectually  unequal.  The  "practical 
man  "  considers  himself  an  unteachable  master 
in  his  own  field,  and  at  the  same  time  a  better 
judge  of  professional  matters  than  the  expert 
who  has  spent  his  life  in  acquiring  technical 
knowledge.  On  the  other  hand,  the  "practical 
man  "  has  the  utmost  contempt  for  any  applica- 
tion to  his  pursuits  of  those  generalities  found- 
ed on  long  experience  which  he  calls  "  theory." 
A  few  years  ago,  in  the  enlightened  city  of  Bos- 
ton, the  trustees  of  the  Public  Library  applied 
their  business  common-sense  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  new  building,  and  declined  to  consult 
any  experienced  librarian  as  to  the  suitability 
of  their  plans.  These  practical  men  have  pro- 
duced a  magnificent  monument,  with  insuffi- 
cient windows,  and  were  able  to  come  within 
almost  a  million  dollars  of  their  own  estimate. 

That  the  mass  of  Americans  do  not  appre- 
ciate expert  knowledge  is  shown  in  part  by  the 
common  use  of  the  word  "  technical "  as  nearly 
synonymous  with  impracticable  ;  and  still  more 
by  the  status  of  the  recognized  "  learned  pro- 
fessions."   The  ministry  is  the  oldest  of  them, 


Zbc  Zcachcfs  iprotesafom 


and  long  the  most  respected  ;  yet  laymen  con- 
sider their  knowledge  of  biblical  history  and 
philology  so  adequate  that  they  try  for  heresy 
learned  scholars  who  disagree  with  them.  The 
profession  of  law  was  looked  on  with  suspicion 
and  dislike  in  colonial  times,  and  owes  its  pres- 
ent standing  chiefly  to  its  great  influence  over 
legislation,  and  to  the  selection  of  judges  from 
its  ranks.  No  established  profession  meets  with 
less  real  consideration  than  the  medical ;  a  few 
years  ago,  in  the  populous  city  of  Cleveland,  the 
physician  with  the  largest  practice  was  an  ig- 
norant German,  who  never  could  be  induced 
to  show  any  diploma,  and  who  diagnosed  dis- 
eases by  examining  the  palms  of  his  patients* 
hands.  The  regular  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy  were  suspected  of  "  book-learning  "  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  and  it  was  only  the 
absolute  necessity  of  the  case  which  allowed 
them  to  come  forward  and  vindicate  their  status 
as  superior  to  the  untrained  volunteers.  Along 
with  them,  engineers  and  scientific  men  are 
somewhat  grudgingly  admitted  to  possess  a 
distinct  professional  status. 

What  is  the  teacher's  place  ?  How  far  does 
the  public  recognize  him  as  one  entitled  to  con- 
fidence and  consultation,  because  learned  in  a 
calling  of  great  benefit  to  the  community  ? 
Three  illustrations  drawn  from  personal  experi- 
ence may  suffice  to  show  how  the  teachers  are 


Xow  )60ttmate  ot  Xearnfng.  5 

regarded,  though  by  far  the  largest  body  of 
educated  men  and  women  in  the  country.  A 
person,  a  foreigner,  who  had  for  some  months 
rendered  practical  services  in  the  writer's 
kitchen,  one  day  asked  the  lady  of  the  house 
whether  her  husband  "had  any  real  profes- 
sion." The  wife  of  another  member  of  the 
teaching  staff  in  Cambridge,  one  day  remarked 
that  "  she  never  could  see  what  President  Eliot 
could  find  to  do."  A  young  friend,  who  had 
been  a  "professor"  in  an  immature  college 
in  the  Southwest,  recently  gave  out  that  he 
thought  of  "going  into  the  education  busi- 
ness." It  appeared  that  his  plan  was  to  start  a 
school,  and  then  personally  to  "  drum  "  whole 
cities  for  patrons — or,  perhaps  one  might  say, 
for  "  customers." 

What  is  the  reason  of  this  attitude  toward 
knowledge  ?  Savages  despise  experts  because 
they  have  no  conception  of  any  knowledge  or 
power  except  what  they  themselves  possess  ;  so 
the  barbarian  Gaul  plucked  the  Roman  senator 
by  the  beard,  because  to  him  he  was  only  a  weak 
old  man.  The  Romans  themselves  cared  little 
for  learning,  because  they  could  not  see  the 
value  of  knowledge  which  was  not  directly  in- 
tended to  advance  the  material  power  and 
wealth  of  the  nation.  Americans  are  rather 
Romans  than  barbarians;  we  value  some 
kinds  of  experts  ;  we  allowed  forty  acres  at  the 


Q;be  zreacbec'e  iprote66fom 


Columbian  Exposition  for  the  display  of  the 
cattle-breeders'  art — and  two  acres  for  a  dis- 
play of  education. 

Perhaps,  after  all,  these  are  extreme  illustra- 
tions of  the  relative  proportions  of  material  and 
intellectual  interests.  Perhaps  we  may  find 
the  status  of  teachers  more  important  than  we 
imagine.  Let  us  proceed  to  consider  three 
points  in  regard  to  it :  First,  how  far  teachers 
practise  a  profession  ;  second,  how  far  they  are 
recognized  as  experts ;  and,  third,  what  may  be 
done  to  improve  the  profession. 

Among  the  principal  marks  of  a  profes- 
sion are :  that  it  should  be  a  permanent  call- 
ing taken  up  as  a  life-work;  that  it  should 
require  special  and  intellectual  training;  and 
that  there  should  be  among  its  members  a  feel- 
ing of  common  interest  and  some  organization. 
When  we  attempt  to  apply  these  criteria  to  the 
teachers  there  is  certainly  some  doubt  whether 
we  form  a  profession  or  no.  The  teacher's  call- 
ing is  well  known  to  be  less  permanent  than 
that  of  others.  For  more  than  a  century  teach- 
ing has  been  considered  in  this  country,  what 
it  could  hardly  be  in  any  other  land,  a  make- 
shift for  young  men  who  expect  to  enter  law 
or  medicine.  Undoubtedly  this  system  of  com- 
bining self -education  with  the  education  of 
others  has  made  it  possible  for  many  young 
men  to  climb  the  difficult  lower  stairs  of  recog- 


peculfarltfes  of  tbe  Calling. 


nized  professions.  Two  presidents  of  the  Unit- 
ed States — John  Adams  and  James  A.  Garfield 
— began  their  career  in  this  fashion.  The  con- 
ditions are  now  changing.  The  colleges  used 
to  have  a  system  of  vacations  which  permitted 
students  to  teach  a  part  of  every  year.  Per- 
haps that  was  as  good  a  way  of  earning  money 
as  waiting  at  summer  hotels  or  acting  as  guide 
at  a  World's  Fair ;  but  the  colleges  no  longer 
suffer  the  interruption.  More  and  more  young 
men  enter  upon  teaching  with  the  expectation 
that  they  will  follow  it  steadily ;  and  so  far 
forth  the  profession  gains  ground.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  in  America  large  bodies 
of  women  teachers ;  and  to  them  no  profession 
has  the  same  permanence  as  to  a  man ;  the  *'  epi- 
demic of  matrimony  "  may  make  inroads  on  the 
teaching  force  in  every  grade.  A  few  months 
ago  the  President  of  the  oldest  and  one  of  the 
best  women's  colleges  in  America  was  in  a  com- 
ical state  of  mingled  wrath  and  amusement  be- 
cause one  of  his  professors  had  resigned  her 
place,  without  any  previous  notice,  and  only  a 
few  days  before  the  beginning  of  the  college 
year,  in  order  to  be  married.  As  the  sage  Bil- 
lings observed,  "  Calico  of  all  kinds  is  the  child 
of  circumstances." 

When  we  come  to  technical  training  the 
teachers  stand  below  other  professions.  Only 
A  ery  recently  have  there  been  opportunities  in 


8  ^be  ^eacbet*6  iprotession* 

America  for  a  course  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  law,  medical,  or  theological  student,  or  of 
the  West  Point  cadet.  We  must  not  leave  out 
of  account  the  system  of  normal  schools  which 
has  done  so  much  to  disabuse  Americans  of  the 
idea  that  any  fairly  intelligent  person  is  suit- 
able as  a  teacher.  It  seems,  however,  that 
those  schools  at  present  occupy  the  same  posi- 
tion as  the  old  medical  schools,  which  gave 
diplomas  after  attendance  on  two  courses  of 
lectures.  The  normal  schools  have  tried  to  do 
two  things  at  once,  and  have  done  neither  of 
them  with  complete  success  ;  they  find  it  neces- 
sary to  offer  a  general  course  because  of  the 
imperfect  preliminary  education  of  many  stu- 
dents who  come  to  them  ;  and  at  the  same  time 
they  have  tried  to  give  a  technical  training :  the 
general  course  has  been  on  too  narrow  a  basis, 
and  the  practical  part  has  been  taught  too 
much  by  lecture  and  demonstration,  and  too 
little  by  actual  practice.  Nor  do  the  college 
courses  in  pedagogy  entirely  fill  the  require- 
ment of  higher  professional  training  ;  they  can 
test  the  general  acquirements  of  students  ;  they 
can  point  out  the  development  of  the  human 
mind  and  suggest  the  best  ways  of  participat- 
ing in  that  development ;  they  can  give  a  wide 
outlook  over  previous  experiments  in  educa- 
tion ;  their  great  danger  is  of  running  into  what 
the  Germans  call  "  Methodologie."    Practical 


professional  XLvMnim,  9 

training  in  teaching  seems  like  that  in  anoth- 
er science  which  makes  the  colleges  known 
throughout  the  Union — the  science  of  football. 
The  good  teacher  needs  strength  and  quickness 
of  mind  ;  he  needs  an  acquaintance  with  the 
rules  of  his  road  ;  above  all  he  needs  personal 
contact  with  the  problems  of  his  calling.  It  is 
impossible  to  educate  a  teacher  without  asso 
dating  him  in  some  way  with  those  who  are  to 
be  taught,  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  make  a 
good  football  eleven  by  studying  the  rules  of 
the  game  and  looking  on  from  the  edge  of  the 
crowd  of  spectators.  A  normal  school  or  a  col- 
lege course  without  actual  classes  of  children 
is  like  football  practice  with  a  dummy  in  a 
gymnasium. 

The  third  element  of  professional  training, 
permanent  organization  and  association,  has 
made  great  advances  in  the  last  few  years. 
Teachers  of  similar  grades  have  gathered  in 
clubs  and  meetings ;  those  of  various  grades 
have  met  in  joint  conferences  and  associations ; 
the  whole  body  of  teachers,  through  their  or- 
ganization in  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, have  sought  to  study  and  to  solve  their 
common  problems. 

Such,  then,  seems  to  be  the  opinion  which  we 
teachers  hold  of  our  calling;  it  is  not  always 
permanent ;  we  are  not  always  well  trained ; 
but  we  have  a  strong  and  growing  feeling  of 


lo  G:be  treacber*0  iprofc60lon» 

esprit  de  corps.  What  does  the  community 
think  of  us?  In  one  respect  at  least  teachers 
are  looked  up  to  as  professional  experts ;  they 
are  generally  considered  men  of  learning-. 
There  is  a  much  greater  respect  throughout 
the  country  for  educated  men  than  they  them- 
selves observe.  Not  long  ago  a  young  lawyer 
in  New  York  City  was  designated  as  an  agent 
of  a  municipal  reform  association  at  one  of  the 
polling-places  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city.  On 
appearing  he  found  his  rivals  disposed  to  hustle 
and  maltreat  him ;  presently  "  Paddy  Divver," 
the  renowned  police  justice,  appeared  as  chief- 
tain of  the  opposite  host ;  on  learning  who  the 
young  stranger  was,  and  finding  that  he  was 
an  educated  man — and  withal  an  agreeable  fel- 
low— Paddy  magnanimously  took  him  under 
his  wing ;  issued  strict  orders  that  he  should 
not  be  molested ;  gave  him  an  excellent  Tam- 
many lunch;  and  parted  with  an  assurance  of 
his  personal  friendship.  Yet  he  had  nothing  to 
gain  by  his  hospitality  except  the  good-will  of 
the  man  whose  advantages  he  respected.  From 
the  district  school  where  "teacher  says  so" 
is  a  decisive  argument  in  domestic  affairs,  to 
the  gentleman  who  has  discovered  an  infallible 
means  of  predicting  the  weather  and  asks  the 
Board  of  Overseers  of  Harvard  College  to  test 
it  and  certify  to  his  fame,  there  is  a  disposition 
to  look  upon  educators  as  more  learned  than 


•KcBpect  for  treacbera*  ii 

other  professional  men.  This  privilege,  how- 
(iver,  applies  only  to  literary  subjects,  treated 
in  a  general  manner ;  we  are  allowed  to  state 
the  height  of  the  Washington  Monument;  but 
to  apply  the  character  of  Washington  as  a  cri- 
terion for  modern  statesmen  is  a  ''descent  into 
])olitics." 

What  we  desire  is  not  that  people  should 
look  upon  us  as  encyclopsedias  of  learning,  but 
that  they  should  ask  and  take  our  advice  upon 
strictly  professional  matters,  such  as  school  or- 
ganization, courses  of  study,  and  school  meth- 
ods. The  real  difficulty  here  is  the  close 
connection  between  the  public  schools  and  the 
State.  The  teachers  are  not  considered  mem- 
bers of  an  independent  profession,  asserting 
their  own  standards,  but  as  employees  of  the 
Government ;  they  are  not  retained  like  lawyers, 
but  hired  like  letter-carriers.  Furthermore, 
since  education  is  a  public  matter,  it  is  often 
considered  the  gift  of  the  State,  to  be  divided 
per  capita  among  the  children  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  bright  and  dull  shall  get  the  same 
amount,  in  the  same  time,  under  the  same  sys- 
tem. This  pernicious  notion  goes  very  deep. 
Congress  looks  upon  the  scientific  men  in  the 
vSmithsonian  and  instructors  in  government 
schools  as  persons  to  take  orders  and  not  to 
make  suggestions.  Teachers  throughout  the 
country  have  little  influence  over  the  organiza- 


12  ^be  ^eacber*6  proteagfom 

tion  of  their  own  schools,  and  still  less  over  the 
selection  of  their  own  associates. 

On  this  point  our  position  is  more  difficult 
than  that  of  other  professions  ;  lawyers  have  a 
bar  examination,  which  they  themselves  admin- 
ister; physicians,  in  the  older  States,  have  a  high 
professional  standard  of  education,  and  will 
eventually  insist  upon  a  State  examination  for 
neophytes.  We  are  betrayed  by  our  own  higher 
institutions ;  one  may  count  almost  on  one  hand 
the  colleges,  and  even  universities,  in  which 
the  faculties  are  the  main-spring  of  the  system. 
In  Cornell,  Columbia,  Yale,  and  Harvard  the 
faculty  does  decide  on  its  own  methods ;  and  at 
Yale  and  Cornell  on  its  own  members.  The 
success  of  those  great  universities  is  in  part  due 
to  the  independence  of  their  teachers.  Even 
the  Overseers  of  Harvard  University,  though 
enlightened  and  public-spirited  men,  chosen  by 
the  suffrage  of  the  graduates,  have  very  little 
control  over  that  university.  Had  they  more 
power,  it  is  perhaps  doubtful  whether  they 
would  make  the  institution  better;  but  they  cer- 
tainly would  make  it  different.  A  few  of  the 
endowed  schools  have  a  faculty  with  power ; 
but  in  public  schools  there  is  almost  always  an 
administrative  system  separate  from  the  teach- 
ers. If  the  principal  of  the  grammar-school 
never  asks  the  opinion  of  his  teachers;  if  the 
head -master    of    a   high -school   never    takes 


c:eacber6  not  Consulted*  13 

counsel  with  his  subordinates,  why  should 
principals  and  masters  expect  to  be  consulted 
by  school  boards  ?  Our  idea  of  school  organ- 
ization is  paternal;  it  suggests  the  Presbyte- 
rian's elaborate  description  of  his  own  church 
government :  "  And  thus  you  see,"  said  he, 
*'  our  General  Assembly,  our  Synods,  our  Pres- 
byteries form  a  system  of  wheels,  working  with- 
in wheels."  "Yes,"  says  a  good  Methodist 
brother, "  and  all  these  wheels  to  grind  the  peo- 
ple with." 

It  is  true  that  the  taxpayers  raise  the  money, 
and  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  public  interest 
that  they  should  have  a  voice  in  its  expen- 
diture ;  it  is  true  that  we  need  the  criticism  of 
the  intelligent  laymen.  But  our  schools,  and 
particularly  the  public  schools,  would  be  much 
better  administered  if  the  Boards  of  Education 
were  content  with  supervising  the  Superin- 
tendent, and  would  give  the  teachers  more 
voice  in  their  own  system  ;  if  Superintendents 
were  content  with  superintending  methods  and 
would  leave  details  to  the  masters  ;  and  if  the 
masters  would  call  their  teachers  into  consul- 
tation. 

In  any  case  it  is  reasonable  to  ask  that  the 
opinions  of  the  teachers  may  have  weight  in 
the  details  of  the  schools,  and  especially  in  the 
selection  of  studies.  Here,  if  anywhere,  ex- 
perience and  observation   ought  to  tell,  and 


14  tLbc  Zcachcfs  iprofe00lom 

here  we  teachers  are  in  part  responsible  for  the 
defects  of  the  present  system.  To  be  sure 
many  of  us  are  caught  in  the  meshes  of  a  sys- 
tem which  we  did  not  make,  and  against  which 
we  struggle.  Nevertheless,  teachers  have  been 
slow  to  show  the  evidence  of  life  usual  in  other 
professions — eagerness  on  the  part  of  the  mem- 
bers to  adopt  improved  methods  and  to  extend 
them.  The  author  of  a  legal  treatise  on  a  new 
system  at  once  acquires  reputation  in  the  pro- 
fession ;  the  leading  physician  is  usually  the 
man  who  is  most  ready  to  test  new  discoveries  ; 
the  more  conservative  profession  of  the  minis- 
try blossoms  out  with  suggestions  of  institu- 
tional churches  and  other  novel  devices  for 
extending  its  work.  Teachers  are  too  apt  to 
look  upon  another  teacher  who  points  out  flaws 
as  a  spy  in  the  camp.  We  ought  to  be  con- 
stantly suggesting  improvements  in  our  own 
work,  and  we  ought  to  accept  outside  criticisms 
as  an  evidence  of  public  interest.  Woe  to  the 
schools  in  which  teachers  or  administrators 
consider  any  part  of  the  system  "  perfect !  " 

Nor  is  content  with  imperfection  the  only 
danger  of  the  schools;  a  fixed  and  artificial 
system  of  education  not  only  benumbs  the 
teachers,  it  also  creates  a  distrust  in  the  minds 
of  the  public.  Some  very  excellent  and  sin- 
cere educators  have  worked  out  elaborate 
theories  in   which  the  schools  are    fitted  to- 


ITmprovement  Slow.  iS 

gether  like  the  trusses  of  a  bridge ;  the  pri- 
mary schools,  they  tell  us,  are  to  teach  a  knowl- 
edge of  things ;  the  grammar-schools  a  knowl- 
edge of  relations ;  the  high-schools,  applications 
of  knowledge ;  and  the  work  in  each  grade  is 
to  be  arranged  accordingly.  Such  wire-drawn 
formalism  brings  the  school  into  discredit. 
The  human  mind  develops  on  all  sides  at  once ; 
astronomy  may  be  a  suitable  study  for  kinder- 
gartens, and  word-building  a  useful  exercise  in 
scraduate  schools. 

The  most  technical  part  of  the  teacher*s 
work  is  his  method  of  teaching ;  here  again 
the  profession  suffers  from  itself.  The  general 
public  feels  that  we  use  a  lot  of  professional 
cant ;  that  certain  stock  phrases  are  used  to 
cover  a  plentiful  lack  of  wit.  The  spirit  of  a 
profession  may  fairly  be  gauged  by  its  period- 
icals ;  the  lawyers,  the  doctors,  the  ministers 
discuss  the  technicalities  of  their  professions  in 
sober,  dignified,  and  literary  fashion.  It  must 
be  confessed  that  many  of  the  educational 
periodicals  suggest  inferior  education ;  they 
abound  in  small  gossip,  in  laudatory  book  no- 
tices, in  free-and-easy  conversational  editorials. 
It  would  be  unfair  to  hold  the  publishers 
wholly  responsible  for  this  sort  of  journals,  be- 
cause they  adapt  their  wares  to  the  markets. 
It  must  be  the  teachers  who  subscribe  for,  and 
support,  what    might  not  inappropriately  be 


1 6  xihc  treacber'0  iprotesslon. 


called  the  "  trade  journals  of  education."  One 
of  our  present  encouragements  is  the  estab- 
lishment in  the  United  States  of  several  educa- 
tional periodicals  of  the  highest  order,  suitable 
exchanges  for  the  best  journals  of  other  coun- 
tries. 

In  what  way  may  the  professional  status  of 
the  teacher  be  improved  ?  That  it  is  rising  is 
shown  in  many  ways,  especially  in  the  better 
provision  for  thorough  training.  The  Normal 
Schools  are  improving;  a  scientific  study  of 
pedagogy  is  slowly  gaining  recognition  as  a 
part  of  university  instruction ;  and  now  a  third 
method  is  starting  up,  of  which  a  special  advan- 
tage is  that  it  may  be  applied  to  teachers  who 
have  already  begun  their  work.  This  is  the 
system  of  training  courses  established  for  teach- 
ers by  colleges  and  technical  schools,  and  de- 
scribed in  the  essay  in  this  volume,  on  "  Uni- 
versity Participation."  The  probable  effect  in 
bringing  about  a  feeling  of  harmony  and  mutual 
interest  between  the  colleges  and  schools  is  too 
evident  to  require  discussion. 

In  some  one  of  the  three  ways,  by  normal 
schools,  courses  in  pedagogy,  or  practical 
training  courses,  greater  professional  advan- 
tages are  obtainable  ;  more  than  that,  they  are 
obtained.  The  planting  of  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, twenty  years  ago,  has  given  a  different 
trend  to  the  preparation  of  teachers,  especially 


jflBeane  of  Ifmprovement.  i7 

for  the  more  advanced  institutions.  There  is 
hardly  a  good  college  in  the  United  States  at 
present  which  will  give  any  man  a  permanent 
appointment  unless  he  has  had  special  training 
in  American  or  foreign  universities,  after  fin- 
ishing his  college  course.  The  principle  is  ex- 
tending into  secondary  schools;  and  the  time 
is  not  far  different  when  a  mastership  in  any 
good  secondary  school  in  New  England  can  be 
had  only  by  a  person  specially  fitted  for  the 
work  which  he  proposes  to  do.  The  influence 
is  likely  to  spread  still  further,  and  we  shall 
surely  have  a  body  of  highly  educated  and 
trained  teachers  below  the  high  -  school.  At 
this  moment  there  are  in  the  Cambridge  gram- 
mar-schools several  women  who  hold  the  de- 
gree of  A.B.  from  a  good  college ;  and  the 
number  of  such  thoroughly  educated  teachers 
is  certain  to  increase. 

Our  standing  before  the  community  may 
also  be  much  improved  by  a  less  self-satisfied 
tone.  We  are  engaged  in  an  excellent  and 
honorable  calling ;  we  have  chosen  it  because 
we  think  it  for  us  the  best  and  the  most  useful ; 
l)ut  teachers  are  entirely  too  apt  to  congratu- 
late each  other  on  the  grandeur  of  their  oppor- 
tunities and  the  greatness  of  their  sacrifices. 
We  are  not  highly  paid  in  comparison  with 
our  friends  and  class-mates  who  began  the  race 
with  us ;  we  are  subject  to  vexatious  uncer- 

2 


1 8  xibc  treacber*6  iprofession. 

tainties  as  to  tenure  and  promotion.  But  we 
have  three  months'  vacation  in  the  year ;  we 
have  fixed  salaries  instead  of  fees  or  donation 
parties ;  and  we  are  able  to  arrange  much  of 
our  own  time.  We  look,  and  are,  a  contented 
body  of  men  and  women;  let  us  admit  our 
content. 

Another  way  to  improve  our  position  is  to 
recognize  the  problem  of  education  which  lies 
before  us.  An  esteemed  correspondent  from 
another  State  recently  wrote  :  "  I  think  we  have 
touched  the  bottom  of  inequality  and  are  now 
well  on  our  way  toward  another  grand  equality. 
.  .  .  One  object  of  free  public  education 
should  be  to  make  men  equal  and  not  unequal." 
That  proposition  is  in  the  wrong  spirit.  It  is 
no  part  of  our  profession  to  reorganize  the  uni- 
verse. We  are  put  here,  like  the  physicians,  to 
take  people  as  we  find  them,  and  to  make  the 
best  that  we  can  out  of  every  one.  A  good 
practitioner  treats  a  weak  and  sickly  child  as 
one  requiring  special  attention ;  he  thinks  he  is 
doing  well  if  he  brings  him  to  the  point  where, 
by  taking  care  of  himself,  he  may  thenceforth 
live,  however  simply  and  quietly.  The  stronger 
and  more  vigorous  boy  may  be  a  subject  for 
the  sharper  discipline  of  rough  and  hearty 
boyish  sports.  But  if  we  wish  to  produce  a 
transcendent  character  such  as  the  stroke  oar 
of  a  victorious  crew,  we  must  catch  him  early 


Baualfsatfon  anO  Xfcenafng.  19 

and  train  him  hard.  There  is  no  other  profes- 
sion that  does  not  seek  out  the  best  young  minds 
and  give  them  the  best  opportunities  that  the 
country  affords.  We  shall  never  be  a  profes- 
sion if  we  do  not  take  each  child  as  we  find 
him,  and  give  him  all  the  training  that  his 
mental  powers  allow,  up  to  the  point  reached 
by  our  schools. 

The  status  of  teachers  would  be  much  im- 
proved if  we  could  adopt  the  foreign  system  of 
a  rigorous  state  examination,  which  could  not 
be  passed  without  special  training,  and  without 
which  no  person  could  be  appointed  as  teacher 
in  any  advanced  school.  Such  a  result  is  very 
difficult  to  accomplish :  the  bar  has  gained  it ; 
the  medical  men  may  reach  it ;  the  teachers,  at 
least  in  some  States,  might  bring  it  about  if 
they  themselves  would  clamor  for  it.  Our 
system  of  schools  conducted  exclusively  by 
local  boards,  with  little  suggestion  and  no  con- 
trol from  the  State,  has  great  advantages;  it 
promotes  healthy  rivalries,  allows  for  peculiar 
circumstances  and  cultivates  lively  public  inter- 
est. None  of  these  advantages  would  be  lost 
by  a  system  of  State  examinations ;  the  local 
boards  and  committee  would  still  draw  the 
plans  and  put  up  the  structure  of  education, 
but  they  would  be  obliged  to  build  with  well- 
shaped  materials. 

The  members  of  the  profession  are  already 


20  tTbe  XLcnchcv'6  iprotessiom 

doing  all  that  can  be  expected  in  the  way  of 
organization  and  association;  the  knowledge 
of  improved  methods  spreads  rapidly  through 
teachers'  associations,  and  through  the  better 
journals,  from  town  to  town  and  from  State  to 
State.  What  is  now  needed  is  to  apply  the 
principle  of  association  so  as  to  bring  nearer 
together  the  teachers  who  are  already  nearest 
together;  the  teachers  in  one  building,  or  in 
one  city.  This  does  not  mean  simply  the  out- 
ward contact  of  teachers'  meetings,  but  the 
establishment  of  some  kind  of  joint  and  several 
responsibility,  some  faculty  system.  The  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  such  a  system  are  very 
serious.  The  adoption  of  departmental  instruc- 
tion in  grammar-schools,  though,  perhaps,  it 
would  bring  about  new  difficulties,  would  cer- 
tainly help  out  this  reform  ;  but  the  real  trouble 
is  not  so  much  a  lack  of  organization  as  of  en- 
lightened public  sentiment.  Perhaps  the  prob- 
lem may  be  solved  by  establishing  in  every  city 
or  county  system  of  schools  a  Teachers'  Coun- 
cil, chosen  by  the  teachers  themselves,  and 
consulted  by  school  boards  on  questions  of  or- 
ganization and  methods. 

At  present  we  are  in  the  hands  of  that  near- 
sighted giant,  the  Public ;  he  moves  us  about 
like  chessmen  on  a  board ;  he  is  responsible 
for  most  of  the  evils  which  we  have  discussed. 
We  feel  toward  him  as  the  White  Queen  felt 


B06ocfatlom  21 


when  she  was  suddenly  transported  to  the 
mantel-piece,  and  with  her  we  cry  out  to  our 
colleagues :  "  Mind  the  volcano !  "  But  he  is 
a  good-natured  and  well-meaning  giant,  sus- 
ceptible to  good  advice  ;  he  likes  to  see  his 
creatures  doing  something,  and  is  willing  that 
they  should  improve.  Good  Public,  give  us 
elbow-room  !  Do  not  insist  on  uniformity,  the 
great  bane  of  American  education !  Do  not 
make  a  solar  system  of  our  schools,  with  super- 
intendents as  force -giving  suns,  masters  as 
light -reflecting  planets,  and  teachers  as  auto- 
matic satellites  or  asteroids !  Give  us  an  oppor- 
tunity to  think,  to  suggest  and  to  criticise,  with- 
out our  heads  rolling  off !  We  will  repay  you 
by  preparing  for  our  profession,  practising  it 
modestly,  and  constantly  raising  our  own  stand- 
ards of  efficiency.  You  give  us  your  children 
to  educate ;  give  us  more  freedom,  so  as  to  edu- 
cate them  well ! 


II. 
IRetotm  in  tbe  Gtammar*'Scboote, 


Unthinking  persons  who  look  upon  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States  perhaps  suppose  that, 
if  the  profession  of  teaching  be  unlike  other  pro- 
fessions, if  it  be  not  possible  to  set  certain  stand- 
ards, or  to  maintain  a  definite  professional  spirit 
by  the  body  of  teachers,  at  least  the  methods 
of  teaching  and  the  choice  of  subjects  are  in  gen- 
eral determined  by  the  teachers.  A  brief  ex- 
perience in  school  administration  has  convinced 
the  writer  that  this  is  a  mistaken  view. 

Teachers  have  little  influence  in  either  of  the 
two  parts  of  the  educational  machinery — that 
which  relates  to  the  selection  of  teachers,  or 
that  which  controls  the  subject-matter  of  educa- 
tion, such  as  the  choice  of  studies  and  of  text- 
books, the  preparation  of  courses  of  study,  and 
the  fixing  of  tests  of  proficiency.  Except  in  a 
very  few  professional  schools,  particularly  those 
of  medicine,  teachers  usually  have  no  voice  in 
the  selection  of  their  fellows ;  the  standards  for 
admission  into  the  profession  are  set  and  ad- 

(22) 


Uhc  ipowers  ot  tTeacbers*  23 

ministered  by  persons  who  have  often  never 
been  teachers,  and  sometimes  know  very  little 
of  the  art.  The  school  boards  and  the  trus- 
tees of  secondary  schools  and  colleges  hold  the 
keys  to  the  gates  which  open  to  the  pedagogue's 
career.  It  might  be  supposed  that  at  least  in 
the  technical  matters  of  curriculum  and  division 
of  the  time  of  pupils  the  teachers  would  have 
sway.  So  it  is  in  many  of  the  institutions  of 
higher  learning ;  college  faculties  and  the  teach- 
ing force  of  endowed  schools  settle  their  own 
problems.  This  is  certainly  not  the  case  with 
the  public  schools. 

If  an  analysis  be  made  of  the  distribution  of 
powers  in  the  educational  commonwealth,  the 
most  influential  persons  are  the  school  superin- 
tendents ;  they  are  not  always  secure  of  their 
tenure,  but  they  can  usually  introduce,  im- 
mediately or  gradually,  any  scheme  of  reform 
which  does  not  involve  the  expenditure  of  more 
money,  and  which  can  be  carried  out  with  the 
teachers  whom  they  are  allowed  to  employ. 
Hence,  perhaps  the  most  encouraging  thing  in 
the  recent  movements  for  the  improvement  of 
grammar-school  education  is  the  interest  taken 
by  the  best  and  most  active  superintendents 
throughout  the  country. 

Next  in  point  of  power  come  the  school 
boards.  In  some  of  the  large  cities  these  are 
political  machines ;  in  Cleveland  the  board  be- 


24  ©rammattfScbool  IReform. 

came  so  bad  that  by  State  enactment  a  new- 
organization  has  been  brought  about  in  which 
the  superintendent  is  made  almost  autocratic. 
Still,  in  many  large  cities,  and  in  most  smaller 
places,  the  school  board  is  controlled  by  well- 
meaning  and  intelligent  men ;  and  in  every 
board,  good  or  bad,  are  some  members  well 
acquainted  with  the  schools  and  eager  to  im- 
prove them.  It  is  in  the  power  of  the  school 
boards  to  force  reforms  upon  unwilling  superin- 
tendents ;  but  they  never  can  carry  out  great 
changes  without  the  aid  of  the  teachers. 

The  third  moving  force  in  the  public  schools 
is  the  "  educators."  These  are  sometimes  men 
who  have  spent  their  lives  in  public-school 
work,  sometimes  private  individuals,  sometimes 
the  principals  of  great  secondary  schools,  or  the 
presidents  of  colleges.  They  have  better  op- 
portunities than  most  superintendents  and  mem- 
bers of  boards  of  education  to  observe  the  work- 
ings of  American  education  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  and  to  compare  them  with  foreign 
schools  of  the  same  grade.  It  is  their  mission 
to  arouse  the  public  to  the  need  of  reform. 

The  fourth  source  of  educational  energy  is  in 
the  public  at  large.  In  the  Northern  and  West- 
ern States  there  is  little  difficulty  in  raising 
money  for  good  schools,  and  everywhere  peo- 
ple are  sincerely  disappointed  if  they  find  their 
children  going  on  year  after  year  with   little 


jeDucattonal  ^otccs.  25 

progress.  If  the  public  can  once  be  convinced 
that  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money  on  the 
public  schools  ought  to  produce  a  greater  re- 
sult, then  reform  can  be  brought  about ;  but  the 
details  will  always  be  settled  primarily  by  the 
superintendents,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  by  the 
school  boards. 

Fifth,  and  last,  come  the  teachers,  who  are  in 
the  unfortunate  position  of  exercising  great  re- 
sponsibility without  much  opportunity  to  make 
their  preferences  felt.  So  far  from  constituting 
the  moving  force  of  the  schools,  they  are  help- 
less links  in  an  endless  educational  chain,  pick- 
ing up  one  batch  of  children  after  another  and 
carrying  them  in  a  direction  which  often  they 
do  not  approve.  So  far  from  the  teachers  form- 
ing a  profession,  they  are  more  like  the  em- 
ployees of  a  great  railroad.  They  have  not 
built  it,  they  do  not  control  it ;  they  may  manage 
their  train,  but  that  train  moves  at  a  prescribed 
pace  over  a  prescribed  route,  carrying  a  pre- 
scribed number  of  little  passengers  in  each  car. 

In  Cambridge,  as  elsewhere,  we  must  reckon 
with  all  these  forces,  though  the  conditions  are 
probably  more  favorable  to  a  reform  in  public- 
school  education  than  in  many  other  cities. 
The  number  of  children  of  school  age  was,  in 
May,  1893,  about  twelve  thousand  six  hundred, 
out  of  a  total  population  of  about  eighty  thou- 
sand ;  of  these  children  five  thousand  five  hun- 


^6  0rammars=ScbooI  IReform. 

dred  are  in  the  grammar-schools.  The  school 
buildings  are  good,  though  by  no  means  equal 
to  those  of  many  Western  cities;  the  newer 
structures  are  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  The 
average  expenditure  per  pupil  throughout  the 
schools  was  in  1893  $18.51  for  salaries,  and  about 
$  I .  I  o  a  year  for  the  abundant  free  text-books  and 
supplies,  furnished  by  the  city.  The  supervision 
is  less  elaborate  than  in  many  cities ;  up  to  1 892 
one  superintendent  performed  the  whole  duty, 
and  now  he  has  but  one  assistant,  a  lady.  All 
the  elements  of  school  government  have,  how- 
ever, been  unusually  well  disposed  toward  mak- 
ing some  change  in  the  grammar-schools.  The 
superintendent  himself,  once  a  principal  in  one 
of  the  grammar-schools  of  the  city,  has  long 
been  convinced  that  those  schools  were  spend- 
ing too  much  time  and  accomplishing  too  little. 
The  school  board  acts  entirely  without  ref- 
erence to  political  parties,  and  although  a  series 
of  accidents  has  brought  in  a  large  number  of 
new  members  during  the  last  five  years,  they 
have  been  persons  willing  to  spend  the  neces- 
sary time  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  needs 
of  the  schools.  The  element  of  warning  and 
good  counsel  has  been  especially  well  repre- 
sented in  Cambridge.  The  officers  of  several 
teachers'  associations  are  found  among  the 
Cambridge  teachers;  and  the  President  of 
Harvard  University  has  freely  raised  his  voice 


Cambridge  Scboole*  27 

in  criticism  of  the  grammar-school  system  and 
of  the  Cambridge  grammar-schools  as  an  illus- 
tration of  that  system.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how 
far  the  public  at  large  has  been  interested  in  the 
proposed  changes ;  there  has  certainly  been  no 
j)rotest  against  them.  The  teachers,  as  soon  as 
they  understood  that  no  change  would  be  made 
without  their  co-operation,  and  without  their 
having  a  previous  opportunity  to  discuss  the 
details  and  to  suggest  amendments,  have  taken 
a  most  gratifying  interest  in  the  whole  matter. 
As  soon  as  the  newly  constituted  school  com- 
mittee was  organized,  in  January,  1892,  a  motion 
was  made  for  the  appointment  of  a  special 
subcommittee  to  examine  into  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  the  time  and  subject-matter  of  the 
grammar-school  curriculum.  The  committee 
embraced  two  of  the  most  experienced  and 
conservative  members  of  the  board,  besides 
some  younger  and  more  impulsive  spirits.  It 
adopted  the  plan  of  holding  a  kind  of  invitation 
meeting.  Thus  into  one  session  were  intro- 
duced superintendents  and  teachers  from  those 
neighboring  cities  in  which  new  methods  and 
new  subjects  had  been  introduced.  At  another 
time  the  masters  of  the  grammar-schools  were 
invited  to  present  their  views  with  regard  to 
shortening  the  grammar-school  course.  Again 
a  delegation  of  teachers  was  called  in  to  meet 
several  experts  in  the  new  subjects  which  it 


28  (5rammar*Scbool  IRetorm* 

was  proposed  to  introduce ;  and  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  school  board  were  at  one  time  or 
another  invited  to  sit  with  the  committee 
and  to  take  part  in  its  deliberations.  The 
purpose  was  that  the  committee  might 
clearly  understand  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
reform,  and  might  put  itself  so  far  as  possible 
in  the  place  of  those  by  whom  new  methods 
were  to  be  carried  out.  Most  of  the  objections 
were  thus  obviated  by  changes  in  the  scheme, 
or  at  least  had  been  considered  before  report 
was  made.  The  result  of  the  committee's  la- 
bors, therefore,  met  with  gratifying  approval, 
and  their  recommendations  were  adopted,  with 
a  few  verbal  changes,  precisely  as  they  were 
made. 

It  was  not  difficult  for  the  committee  to  make 
up  their  minds  as  to  what  ought  to  be  accom- 
plished in  a  grammar-school  education.  Chil- 
dren go  to  school  less  to  learn  than  to  learn 
how ;  less  to  acquire  a  stock  of  ideas  than  to 
put  ideas  together.  School  training  is  very 
like  gymnasium  training  ;  people  do  not  raise 
weights  for  the  sake  of  driving  clocks  with 
them,  but  in  order  that  they  may  raise  heavier 
weights  hereafter.  Throughout  American  edu- 
cation too  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
acquisition,  and  too  little  on  the  development 
of  power.  What  the  Cambridge  school  board 
desires  is  to  make  out  of  its  boys  and  girls 


Zbc  Commlttee'0  Bfm»  29 

practical,  sensible  men  and  women,  able  to  meet 
and  decide  the  questions  which  come  to  them. 
But  we  have  two  very  distinct  classes  of  pupils 
in  the  grammar-schools :  children  who  do  not 
expect  to  go  beyond  the  grammar-schools  and 
children  on  their  way  to  college.  Of  course 
the  lower  schools,  the  academies,  high-schools, 
colleges,  and  universities  are  all  engaged  in 
different  branches  of  the  same  pursuit ;  of 
course  they  must  work  together.  Cambridge 
makes  careful  and  very  expensive  provision  for 
the  preparation  of  boys  and  girls  for  college. 
Should  the  city  begin  below  its  Latin  School, 
and  make  in  the  grammar-schools  any  sort  of 
special  provision  for  future  college  students? 
In  the  minds  of  the  committee  it  seemed  far 
more  important  to  organize  as  good  a  course  as 
possible  for  those  who  stop  at  the  end  of  the 
grammar-schools.  It  seems  likely  that  an  im- 
proved course  would  also  direct  many  children 
into  the  road  toward  higher  education  ;  but  the 
determining  motive  has  been  the  desire  to  fur- 
nish the  best  education  possible  to  those  who 
will  have  no  other  opportunity ;  to  make  the 
people's  schools  more  popular  because  more 
effective,  and  to  carry  more  children  to  the  end 
of  the  grammar-school  course. 

Two  problems  now  presented  themselves 
which  appeared  to  nullify  each  other.  The 
experience  of  other  cities  and  of  other  coun- 


30  (5rammar*Scbool  IReform* 

tries  seemed  to  show  that  the  Cambridge  gram- 
mar-school course  was  too  long.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  schools  have  been  urged  in  the  last 
three  or  four  years  to  cover  more  ground.  To 
shorten  the  course  seemed  possible  ;  to  increase 
it  seemed  possible  ;  could  it  both  be  shortened 
and  increased  ?  A  few  months  ago  a  young 
lady  who  was  taking  a  civil-service  examina- 
tion in  Cambridge,  looking  forward  to  a  posi- 
tion under  the  city  government,  made  the  fol- 
lowing written  statement :  "  When  a  child  I 
went  to  a  primary  school  in  Cambridge.  As 
there  were  four  teachers  and  four  rooms,  I  was 
four  years  in  passing  through  that  school."  It 
is  literally  true  that,  although  the  primary 
course  required  but  three  years,  every  child 
who  went  through  that  particular  school  at  the 
time  when  she  attended  it  was  obliged  to  take 
an  extra  year,  because  it  was  more  "  conven- 
ient "  than  to  break  the  four  rooms  up  into 
three  grades.  Of  late  years  such  stifling  appli- 
cations of  red  tape  have  not  been  permitted; 
nevertheless,  until  recently,  it  was  not  possible 
for  any  child,  however  quick,  to  finish  a  gram- 
mar-school course  in  Cambridge  in  less  than 
six  years,  although  in  Western  cities  the  same 
ground  is  commonly  covered  in  five  years.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  six  is  by  no  means  a 
magic  number,  since  eighteen  per  cent,  of  our 
grammar-school  pupils    spent  at   least   seven 


©rammatsScbool  **  Shippers."  31 

years  on  the  way.  The  school  board  has  for 
some  time  sought  to  remedy  this  artificial  sys- 
tem by  authorizing  masters  to  advance  pupils 
by  a  process  of  "skipping."  A  bright  child 
might  thus  be  carried  from  the  fourth  direct  in- 
to the  second  grade,  leaving  out  the  third  grade ; 
or,  more  commonly,  small  classes  of  "  skippers  " 
have  been  formed  to  do  the  work  of  three  years 
in  two.  About  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  grammar- 
school  graduates  have  taken  advantage  of  this 
system,  and  about  five  per  cent,  have  "skip- 
ped "  twice.  The  result  has  been  a  practical 
variation  of  the  course  from  four  to  seven  years, 
according  to  the  ability  of  the  pupil.  By  an 
easy  amplification  of  this  principle  it  seemed 
possible  to  make  the  same  allowance  for  individ- 
uals, but  to  make  the  course  more  regular  and 
to  avoid  gaps  left  by  the  "  skippers,"  this  has 
been  accomplished  by  a  novel  system  devised 
by  the  superintendent,  and  put  into  effect  for  the 
first  time  in  1892.  Two  grammar-school  courses 
are  arranged  side  by  side,  one  of  them  to  re- 
quire six  years  and  the  other  four ;  but  each 
of  these  courses  is  subdivided  into  two  periods 
or  forms.  The  combination  of  the  lower  quick- 
moving  form  of  two  years,  and  the  upper  quick- 
moving  form  makes  a  four-years*  course.  The 
combination  of  the  lower  quick-moving  and  the 
upper  slow-moving  form  of  three  years,  or  vice 
versa,  makes  a  five  years*  course.    The  combina- 


32  <5rammar*Scbool  "Ketorm. 

tion  of  the  two  halves  of  the  slow-moving  divi- 
sion makes  a  six  years'  course.  Thus,  without 
reorganizing  the  schools,  it  is  possible  to  make 
every  reasonable  allowance  for  the  abilities  and 
opportunities  of  children.  A  child  who  loses  a 
year  from  sickness  may  make  it  up  by  going 
into  the  quick-moving  division ;  a  child  who 
proves  too  delicate  for  that  work  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  slower  division ;  and  such  trans- 
fers are  made  at  any  time  according  to  the 
discretion  of  the  masters.  The  system  has 
now  had  two  years'  trial  and  has  justified  the 
expectations  of  its  advocates.  The  proportion 
of  seven-years'  pupils  is  sensibly  reduced  ;  and 
nearly  half  the  children  get  through  in  five 
years  or  less. 

Two  objections  may  be  suggested  to  this 
scheme.  One  is,  that  it  will  be  necessary  for 
teachers  to  have  two  grades  in  one  room.  This 
is  not  by  any  means  a  misfortune.  In  the  coun- 
try district  schools  it  is  well  known  that  the 
younger  children  often  learn  the  lessons  of  the 
older  from  hearing  their  recitations  ;  the  influ- 
ence of  one  grade  of  children  upon  the  other 
in  city  schools  may  be  equally  decided  and 
valuable.  The  other  objection  is  that  the  sys- 
tem produces  irregularity  and  confusion.  One 
of  the  chief  educational  officers  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Massachusetts  once  said :  "  Unity 
in  these  things  is  desirable,  not  only  because 


patallel  Q^etcm.  33 

unity  of  results  requires  it,  but  because  the 
largest  and  truest  progress  can  be  secured  in 
no  other  way.  There  should  be  unity  also  in 
the  methods  of  teaching."  So  long  as  the  Al- 
mighty does  not  make  His  children  uniform, 
whether  young  or  old,  a  system  founded  upon 
regularity  must  be  evil.  The  attempt  to  com- 
press into  the  same  grade,  pursuing  the  same 
studies,  children  who  have  been  the  same 
number  of  years  in  school,  is  an  attempt  which 
must  result  in  silting  up  the  inferior  minds  and 
in  blunting  the  superior.  The  ideal  system 
of  teaching  would  be  that  of  the  old  district 
schools  and  of  some  of  the  best  private  schools 
— to  form  a  class  whenever  half  a  dozen  children 
could  be  found  of  about  the  same  degree  of  ad- 
vancement, and  to  keep  several  classes  in  one 
room,  for  the  sake  of  the  mutual  influence  of 
the  children  on  each  other. 

Nevertheless,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
scheme  requires  more  care,  thought,  and  su- 
pervision than  an  ordinary  graded  school. 
There  are  two  ways  in  which  much  of  the  dif- 
ficulty may  be  avoided.  One  is  the  so-called 
departmental  system,  by  which  one  teacher 
will  teach  but  one  or  a  few  subjects ;  it  has 
been  adopted  in  the  Workingman's  School  in 
New  York  and  elsewhere,  and  one  of  the  mas- 
ters of  the  Cambridge  schools  has  desired  to 
make  a  trial  of  it.  While  it  seems  likely  that 
3 


34  GcammatsScbool  IReform. 

this  system,  which  is  familiar  in  the  gymnasia 
in  Germany,  will  eventually  be  introduced,  the 
experience  of  the  schools  which  have  tried  it 
in  this  country  is  not  wholly  favorable.  What 
the  children  gain  in  efficiency  of  teaching  they 
sometimes  lose  from  a  weakened  discipline.  A 
different  step  has,  therefore,  been  taken  in 
Cambridge,  to  provide  for  the  difficulty  of 
handling  the  carefully  classified  pupils.  In  the 
large  buildings  "  teachers  without  grade  "  have 
been  appointed,  who  make  up  small  classes  of 
children  deficient  in  particular  subjects  and 
bring  them  forward  more  rapidly  than  would 
be  possible  in  the  ordinary  school-room.  By 
a  temporary  shifting  of  teachers  this  will  make 
it  possible  to  look  out  for  individual  needs  and 
to  relieve  the  schools  of  the  children  who  have 
been  blocking  the  way  by  staying  more  years 
than  was  good  for  them.  An  advantage  of  the 
system  is  that  it  practically  increases  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  buildings,  and  is  thus  a  saving  to 
the  taxpayer. 

A  third  objection  to  the  whole  system  ought 
to  be  considered,  not  because  it  has  force,  but 
because  it  is  perhaps  weighty  in  the  minds  of 
the  public :  it  is  that  such  variations  in  the 
schools  are  undemocratic.  True  democratic 
equality,  however,  consists  in  the  right  of  every 
man  to  make  the  most  of  his  natural  powers. 
No  social  system  can  be  arranged  which  does 


treacbere  TlBlftbout  (5ra&e»  3S 

not  take  cognizance  of  the  difference  of  ability 
between  man  and  man.  The  elastic  arrangement 
is  distinctly  in  the  interest  of  poor  but  bright 
children,  who  may  be  brought  forward  more 
rapidly  and  may  be  better  trained  if  some  ac- 
count be  taken  of  their  special  abilities.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  public  schools  to  promote 
equality ;  but  they  promote  it  best,  not  by  de- 
nying advantages  to  the  fortunate  part  of  the 
community,  best  endowed  and  in  the  most  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  but  by  bestowing  them 
and  pressing  them  upon  those  whose  active 
minds  will  never  be  properly  improved  except 
by  giving  them  special  attention. 

The  Cambridge  schools  are  thus  fully  com- 
mitted to  a  plan  by  which  it  is  hoped  that  the 
average  time  in  the  grammar-schools  will  be 
five  years  or  less.  It  has  not  been  the  purpose 
to  diminish  the  amount  of  study  at  present  re- 
quired, because  experience  has  shown  that  it 
may  be  well  performed  in  five  or  even  four 
years.  The  next  question  which  arose  was 
whether  the  same  amount  of  energy  and  study 
may  not  be  made  more  interesting  and  more 
stimulating  by  a  rearrangement  of  work  and  the 
introduction  of  new  subjects.  The  old  curricu- 
lum of  the  Cambridge  schools  was  simple,  on 
the  whole,  reasonable,  and  certainly  not  exces- 
sive in  amount.  Reading  was  kept  up  through 
all  the  six  grades,  authorized  readers  continu- 


3^  (Brammar^sScbool  IRetorm* 

ing  through  the  eighth  grade,  and  standard 
English  authors  being  introduced  in  the  sev- 
enth grade,  half  -  way  through  the  course. 
Spelling  continued  through  four  of  the  six 
grades  with  a  spelling-book,  besides  the  cor- 
rection of  written  exercises  from  time  to  time. 
Formal  grammar  was  taught  with  a  text-book 
in  all  the  grades.  Geography  ran  throughout 
the  course  with  poor  text-books,  and  with  more 
or  less  of  the  senseless  superposition  of  maps 
upon  artificial  geometrical  figures.  Arithmetic 
continued  throughout  all  the  grades,  but  the 
more  difficult  and  technical  subjects  were  set 
aside  to  be  added  only  at  the  discretion  of 
the  masters.  This  was  then  the  work  of  the 
six  years:  reading,  spelling,  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, and  arithmetic,  with  the  minor  subjects 
of  physiology,  a  little  history,  music,  drawing, 
penmanship,  and  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Not 
much  is  here  included  besides  the  essentials  of 
an  intelligent  existence :  pupils  left  the  gram- 
mar-schools able  to  read,  to  write,  to  cipher, 
to  parse,  with  some  notion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and,  it  must  be  admitted,  with  consider- 
able ability  to  express  themselves  cogently  in 
the  mother  tongue.  Instruction  in  the  use  of 
the  English  language  has  much  improved  in 
recent  years,  and  already  received  great  atten- 
tion before  the  committee  began  its  labors. 
It  was  not  apparent  that  any  of  these  subjects 


Zbc  "Claual  Curriculum.  37 

could  be  omitted  ;  it  did  seem,  however,  that  a 
part  of  the  six  years  might  somehow  be  re- 
leased. A  great  deal  of  time  was  spent  in  re- 
views. An  eminent  surgeon  said  of  anatomy 
that  it  was  a  subject  which  you  could  not  know 
until  you  had  learned  and  forgotten  it  seven 
times ;  possibly  grammar-masters  have  some 
such  principle  in  mind.  In  practice  the  reviews 
served,  however,  not  so  much  to  recall  what 
had  been  learned  by  bright  scholars,  as  to  teach 
pupils  what  they  ought  to  have  learned  in  the 
grade  below ;  in  Cambridge,  as  throughout 
the  country,  those  scholars  who  least  respond 
to  the  teacher  usually  get  most  of  her  time. 
The  four  and  six  years'  plan  has  relieved  the 
schools  by  separating  out  the  scholars  who 
really  need  review,  so  that  the  quicker  division 
may  go  directly  into  new  subjects.  Again,  the 
committee  became  satisfied  that  a  great  deal  of 
time  had  been  spent  to  little  purpose  in  getting 
classes  ready  for  examinations,  and  the  school 
board  voted  that  henceforth  there  shall  be  no 
stated  examinations,  and  that  promotions  shall 
be  made  upon  the  record  of  the  term  work. 
These  two  reforms  —  putting  bright  pupils 
ahead  into  the  subjects  which  they  are  able  to 
take  up,  and  the  saving  of  unnecessary  review 
preparatory  to  examination  —  left  the  schools 
more  time  than  they  had  previously.  Another 
saving  was  possible  by  simplifying  the  work, 


38  (3rammar=Scbool  IRetorm. 

particularly  in  arithmetic  ;  there  is  a  great  ten- 
dency on  the  part  of  teachers  to  emphasize  this 
subject  by  giving  long,  complicated,  and  numer- 
ous problems  instead  of  more  simple  examples. 
Another  loss  of  time  may  be  avoided  by  simpli- 
fying the  study  of  language  ;  it  does  not  seem 
necessary  that  intelligent  children  should  for 
five  successive  years  be  taking  up  the  principles 
of  grammar.  Surely  what  is  necessary  to  re- 
member may  at  last  be  learned  ;  whatever 
training  comes  from  such  subjects  may  at  last 
be  had  ;  and  the  pupils'  minds  may  some  time 
be  turned  to  fresher  and  more  interesting 
topics. 

When  in  1890  the  suggestion  was  first  thrown 
out  that  the  grammar-schools  were  teaching 
too  little,  it  was  met  with  incredulity,  with  de- 
nial, and  personal  abuse.  It  has  now  been  re- 
peated, developed,  and  illustrated  by  so  many 
eminent  teachers,  administrators,  and  heads  of 
great  systems  of  public  education  that  the  com- 
munity accepts  it,  and  even  the  teachers  ac- 
knowledge it.  In  fact,  the  opposition  to  the 
proposed  reform  has  sprung  chiefly  out  of  mis- 
apprehension ;  when  the  grammar-school  sys- 
tem was  criticised,  the  grammar-school  teach- 
ers felt  that  they  were  attacked  ;  whereas  they, 
like  the  rest  of  the  community,  were  sufferers 
from  a  sj^^stem  for  which  they  could  not  be  held 
responsible.    The  most  important  advance  in 


Ifnertneas  ot  the  Scbools.  39 

the  subject  was  that  made  November  6,  1891, 
by  the  Association  of  Colleges  in  New  Eng- 
land. Although  the  members  of  that  body 
were  all  engaged  in  college  teaching,  their 
recommendation  does  not  appear  to  have 
sprung  from  any  desire  to  make  the  grammar- 
schools  feeders  for  higher  schools ;  they  were 
interested  in  the  public  schools  as  citizens,  and 
many  of  them  as  fathers  of  public-school  chil- 
dren. 

What  shall  be  done  with  the  time  saved  to 
the  schools  by  cutting  off  examinations  and 
tedious  reviews  and  simplifying  the  subjects 
previously  taught?  The  Association  of  Colleges 
in  New  England  recommended  that  algebra 
and  geometry  be  introduced  into  the  grammar- 
schools.  The  Cambridge  schools  then  included 
in  their  mathematical  studies  mental  and  written 
arithmetic  throughout  the  six  grades,  and  book- 
keeping. The  book-keeping  was  in  most  cases 
of  a  simple  kind,  and  it  has  been  thought  wise 
to  abandon  the  pretentious  and  undeserved  title 
and  substitute  the  term,  "  simple  personal  and 
business  accounts."  Arithmetic  has  long  been 
chosen  as,  on  the  whole,  the  principal  subject  in 
the  grammar-schools,  both  because  of  its  prac- 
tical applications,  and  of  the  excellent  trailing 
to  the  mind  resulting  from  its  precision.  Yet 
in  the  ordinary  study  of  arithmetic  there  has 
been  too  little  development  of  the  reasoning 


40  erammatsScbool  IReform* 

powers ;  under  poor  teachers  the  rules  have 
been  learned  and  applied  by  rote.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  two  mathematical  sub- 
jects— algebra  and  geometry — in  which  train- 
ing is  the  larger  element;  in  one,  algebra,  the 
processes  are  closely  akin  to  those  of  arith- 
metic. If  a  choice  of  new  subjects  must  be 
made,  it  seems  desirable  to  take  geometry,  be- 
cause its  point  of  view  is  different,  and  because 
the  exactness  of  logical  reasoning  makes  up  for 
some  of  the  loose  habits  of  thought  which  chil- 
dren get  in  other  subjects.  Geometry,  proper- 
ly taught,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  sub- 
jects, and  it  may  readily  be  allied  with  drawing 
and  with  mensuration ;  the  schools  may  thus 
teach  in  a  more  or  less  regular  fashion  the  prop- 
erties of  geometrical  forms,  and  the  relations  to 
each  other  of  lines  and  angles.  In  one  of  the 
towns  near  Boston,  in  which  that  study  has  been 
introduced  into  the  schools,  the  boys  have  de- 
veloped an  interesting  practical  application ; 
they  go  about  and  offer  to  calculate  the  height 
of  their  neighbors*  houses,  by  means  of  their 
simple  instruments  and  formulae.  If  this  part 
of  the  school  study  be  combined  and  organized, 
and  made  to  advance  from  year  to  year,  it  will 
lead  up  by  the  most  natural  steps  to  the  study 
of  simple  geometrical  problems.  The  Cam- 
bridge school  board  has  therefore  adopted  the 
study  of  geometry  as  obligatory  in  the  gram- 


(5eomctn2  anO  Blsebra*  41 

mar-schools.  Some  of  the  teachers  hesitated 
on  this  point,  and  some  of  them  preferred  the 
teaching  of  algebra.  The  board  has  therefore 
authorized  any  master  who  so  chooses,  to  in- 
troduce algebra  in  the  last  year  in  connection 
with  arithmetic. 

Next  come  reading  and  language.  Every 
well-educated  man  needs  the  knowledge  of 
some  language  besides  his  own  ;  but  in  America 
there  is  not  the  same  practical  necessity  for  the 
use  of  modern  languages  as  abroad.  We  have 
but  two  neighboring  countries  in  which  Eng- 
lish is  not  spoken,  Cuba  and  Mexico ;  and  few 
Americans  have  any  occasion  to  use  Spanish. 
Still,  nothing  surpasses  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages in  the  effect  upon  one's  own  vocabulary 
and  mode  of  speech ;  and  no  man  who  desires  to 
use  the  thoughts  of  current  writers  on  scientific 
or  technical  subjects  can  get  on  without  French 
and  German.  Hence  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  study  of  some  language  should  be 
introduced  into  the  grammar-schools,  and  the 
only  convenient  tongues  are  Latin,  French,  and 
German.  Any  one  of  these  may  be  pursued 
with  advantage  by  American  children,  as  they 
are  by  boys  and  girls  of  the  same  age  in  foreign 
countries ;  while  it  may  be  no  argument  to  say 
that  because  a  subject  is  studied  abroad  it 
ought  to  be  studied  in  America,  we  surely  can- 
not admit  that  American  children  are  less  ca- 


->f/  .O/:^ 


^^>> 


42  (Btammar^Scbool  IRetorm, 

pable  or  develop  less  rapidly  than  those  in  for- 
eign countries.  If  an  American  boy  and  a  Ger- 
man boy  were  cast  away  upon  the  same  desert 
island,  the  American  would  take  care  of  himself 
and  save  his  comrade's  life ;  but  if  an  American 
young  man  of  twenty  be  put  side  by  side  with 
a  German  young  man  of  the  same  age,  he  finds 
himself  inferior  in  the  power  to  deal  with  new 
problems  in  science,  in  logic,  or  in  the  work- 
ings of  the  human  mind ;  whereas,  with  his  bet- 
ter start  and  surroundings,  he  ought  to  excel. 
His  greater  experience  in  practical  matters,  in 
self-protection,  in  money-making,  ought  not  to 
interfere  with  skill  in  the  use  of  his  reasoning 
powers.  The  difficulty  in  the  introduction  of 
languages  is  not  that  they  are  too  hard  for  the 
pupil,  but  that  they  are  too  severe  for  the  tax- 
payer. Three-quarters  of  the  children  in  the 
Cambridge  grammar-schools  could  get  a  great 
deal  of  good  out  of  any  one  of  the  three  men- 
tioned ;  about  one-twentieth  of  them  would  be 
much  aided  in  their  preparation  for  college ; 
every  pupil  who  had  a  foreign  language  would 
understand  the  use  of  English  better.  The  dif- 
ficulty is  that  foreign  tongues  are  not  so  eas- 
ily taught  as  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  geog- 
raphy ;  good  teachers  in  these  branches  are 
difficult  to  find  for  any  institution ;  and  if  intro- 
duced on  a  large  scale,  languages  require  costly 
supervision.     Hence  it  is  much  easier  to  intro- 


%mQ\xaQCB.  43 


duce  a  new  language  into  a  town  having  one 
graded  school  than  where  there  are  a  dozen 
large  schools. 

No  recommendation  was  made  to  the  Cam- 
bridge school  committee  on  other  modern  lan- 
guages, but  the  sub-committee  suggested  im- 
portant reforms  in  the  teaching  of  English. 
In  the  first  place,  formal  grammar  lessons,  in- 
cluding learning  of  parts  of  speech  and  pars- 
ing, are  to  be  confined  henceforth  to  the  last 
two-thirds  of  the  grammar  schools.  In  the 
second  place,  set  spelling  lessons  are  to  stop  at 
the  end  of  the  first  two-thirds  of  the  grammar 
schools.  In  the  third  place  (and  this  is  one  of 
the  most  important  reforms),  extended  extracts 
from  standard  English  authors  are  to  be  read 
in  all  grades  side  by  side  with  the  authorized 
readers,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  course  to 
supersede  them.  Many  of  the  modern  school 
readers  are  excellently  selected,  and  have  inter- 
esting matter  of  good  literary  flavor ;  but  they 
are  choppy,  and  children,  except  in  the  last  year 
of  their  course,  have  almost  no  opportunity  in 
school  to  become  acquainted  with  the  great 
English  and  American  writers  ;  hence,  possibly, 
the  growing  desire  of  Americans,  in  their  home 
reading,  to  descend  from  short  books  to  short 
articles,  and  thence  to  short  paragraphs. 

The  next  change  suggested  is  in  the  teaching 
of  geography.    Political  geography  and   his- 


44  Grammar«ScbooI  IRctorm* 

tory  are  thenceforth  to  be  treated  together  as 
branches  of  the  same  subject.  Physical  geog- 
raphy is  to  be  expanded  and  to  be  grouped  with 
science.  The  details  of  the  new  course  have  not 
yet  been  worked  out,  but  they  will  include,  as 
fast  as  the  means  of  the  board  will  allow,  the 
use  of  maps,  apparatus,  and  models.  Children 
are  to  be  taught  to  look  on  physical  geography 
as  a  part  of  the  development  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  then  to  connect  with  the  contour  of  the 
earth's  surface  the  movements  of  the  winds, 
and  finally,  to  observe  the  effect  of  physical 
causes  on  the  settlement  and  development  of 
nations. 

The  last  new  subject  introduced  was  physics. 
Here  it  has  been  much  more  difficult  than  in  the 
other  changes  to  frame  the  right  kind  of  course 
and  to  fit  it  into  the  grammar-school  system. 
The  choice  of  the  board  was  between  two  sys- 
tems ;  they  might,  as  in  many  cities,  teach  chil- 
dren to  notice  flowers,  trees,  rocks,  and  stones, 
to  count  their  fingers  and  toes,  and  to  compare 
them  with  the  hoofs  of  horses  and  cattle,  and 
then  call  that  science ;  on  the  other  hand,  they 
might  choose  some  one  branch  of  science  and 
teach  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  children  their 
first  ideas  of  scientific  methods  and  scientific 
accuracy.  After  considering  all  possible  sub- 
jects, the  board  finally  resolved  to  introduce 
experimental  physics,  the  recommendation  to 


take  effect  after  a  year.  The  difficulties  have 
proved  serious,  but  not  insurmountable.  In  the 
first  place,  some  part  of  each  building  must  be 
set  aside  for  a  little  laboratory,  and  most  of  the 
school-houses  are  already  well  occupied  ;  it  has 
proved,  however,  that  the  corner  of  an  assem- 
bly-room, a  lobby,  or  even  an  unused  cloak- 
room, may  be  furnished  with  a  few  rough  ap- 
pliances sufficient  for  the  purpose.  The  next 
difficulty  is  the  lack  of  apparatus ;  it  had  been 
estimated  that  to  fit  up  the  rudest  laboratory, 
so  that  it  would  be  sufficient  for  the  use  of  a 
grammar-school,  would  cost  two  hundred  dol- 
lars, and  perhaps  more.  Experience  has  shown 
that  sixteen  sets  of  the  necessary  apparatus — 
sufficient  to  fit  out  as  large  a  section  as  can  be 
conveniently  taught  at  once — cost  eighty  to 
ninety  dollars.  The  necessary  tables  for  sixteen 
persons  cost  forty-five  to  fifty  dollars.  The 
teacher's  list  of  appliances  and  certain  miscel- 
laneous supplies  cost  about  thirty  dollars.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  dollars  will  hence  stock  a  suitable  little 
laboratory.  It  was  thought  that  the  boys  in 
the  manual  training-school  would  be  sufficiently 
advanced  to  make  most  of  the  necessary  appa- 
ratus, and  the  superintendent  of  that  school 
helped  on  the  system  by  constructing  some 
necessary  pieces,  at  the  cost  of  materials.  But 
the  boys  proved  not  to  be  sufficiently  skilled  to 


4^  Grammar^Scbool  IReform. 

make  the  accurate  and  delicate  pieces  required. 
The  third  difficulty  was  the  lack  of  trained 
teachers,  and  it  was  met  by  providing  special 
normal  instruction  in  physics  during  two  years. 
Of  all  the  subjects  proposed  this  is  probably 
the  most  desirable,  both  for  its  training  and  for 
its  practical  applications.  No  other  goes  so 
far  in  suggesting  to  children  to  look  below  the 
surface  for  the  cause  of  things ;  and  no  study 
is  more  likely  to  be  useful  to  boys  and  girls 
who  are  hereafter  to  use  their  hands  and  their 
heads  in  any  kind  of  trade  which  calls  for  man- 
ual skill. 

The  four  new  subjects  thus  proposed  are 
English  literature,  geometry,  physical  geogra- 
phy from  a  new  stand-point,  and  physics.  The 
Cambridge  teachers  are  certainly  equal  to  the 
average  of  their  profession.  Before  appoint- 
ment most  of  them  have  had  a  high-school  edu- 
cation, a  normal-school  education,  and  an  expe- 
rience of  one  year,  preferably  in  the  Cambridge 
training-school  for  teachers,  which  is  part  of  the 
school  system.  Yet  not  many  except  the  mas- 
ters were  prepared  properly  to  teach  geometry, 
physics,  or  physical  geography.  Some  special 
provision  for  training  in  these  subjects  would 
have  been  necessary  at  the  public  expense,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  scheme,  loaded  down 
by  such  a  necessity,  could  have  been  accepted. 
At  this  point  Harvard  University,  with  an  un- 


ConMtione  of  IRcform*  47 

derstanding  of  the  inter-dependence  of  com- 
mon-school and  college  education,  agreed  to 
furnish,  at  its  own  expense,  normal  instruction 
for  the  Cambridge  teachers  in  the  three  sub- 
jects named.  The  successful  workings  of  this 
system  will  be  described  in  the  next  essay. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  conditions  for  a  reform 
in  the  grammar-schools  in  Cambridge  were 
unusually  favorable.  The  city  has  been  placed 
in  the  midst  of  a  long  discussion  of  the  subject, 
in  which  some  of  the  grammar-school  teachers 
have  been  engaged.  The  superintendent  has 
been  unusually  interested ;  the  school  commit- 
tee have  given  an  amount  of  time  and  consid- 
eration to  the  subject  which  could  not  be  se- 
cured every  year.  The  teachers  are  interested, 
and  the  university  has  simplified  the  whole 
problem  by  providing  for  the  necessary  special 
instruction  of  the  teachers.  Furthermore,  it 
has  not  been  attempted  to  make  all  the  changes 
which  have  been  suggested  by  the  New  Eng- 
land Association  of  Colleges  and  elsewhere. 
Algebra  has  not  been  made  obligatory.  No 
new  language  has  been  introduced,  and  but 
two  sciences,  physics  and  physical  geography. 
Most  cities  could  undertake  these  reforms 
v/ithout  serious  additional  expense ;  but  every 
school  board  must  make  up  its  mind  that  the 
saving  of  time  means,  not  that  less  money  need 
be  expended  on  the  schools,  but  that  a  bet- 


48  6rammar*ScbooI  'Reform, 

ter  education  may  be  furnished  for  the  same 
outlay.  It  is  estimated  that  in  Cambridge  five 
hundred  scholars  were  spending  an  unneces- 
sary year,  at  a  total  cost  of  about  nine  thousand 
dollars ;  but  under  the  new  system  most  of  those 
five  hundred  children  would  simply  add  that 
extra  year  to  the  top  of  their  present  schooling. 
The  result  will  be  an  incalculable  advantage  to 
the  community,  but  not  a  lessening  in  the  tax- 
rate. 


III. 

TUnivcvsit^  participation— H  Substitute  tot 
'Clniverait^  jEjtension* 


In  the  history  of  Florence  there  was  once  a 
time  when  the  only  people  who  felt  that  they 
had  power  and  security  were  the  nobles,  who, 
from  their  towered  fortresses,  looked  down 
upon  the  multitude ;  there  was  another  time,  a 
little  later,  when  those  same  nobles  began  to 
sue  for  admission  into  the  great  trade  guilds 
which  had  become  a  power  in  the  state.  Much 
such  a  change  is  coming  over  American  educa- 
tion. For  many  years  the  colleges  went  on 
their  way  with  little  reference  to  the  secondary, 
and  especially  to  the  public,  schools.  Now, 
however,  university  presidents  consult  the 
secondary  schools  which  furnish  them  with 
students,  and  are  interested  in  every  grade  of 
education.  The  college  men  are  now  the  neo- 
phytes, the  apprentices,  the  learners,  so  that 
at  the  meeting  of  school  superintendents  in 
Boston,  in  1893,  two  professors  were  present  as 
official  delegates  of  Columbia  College.  Per- 
4  (49) 


50  'dnfversit^  Iparticipatfon, 

haps  the  most  cheerful  symptom  in  the  present 
educational  movement  is  the  exchange  of  views 
by  teachers  from  all  sorts  of  institutions.  It  is 
a  period  of  good  feeling,  of  common  interest, 
of  mutual  understanding,  and  of  co-operation 
between  the  public  schools  and  the  universities 
of  the  land. 

This  is  also  a  period  of  searching  examination 
into  the  character  and  needs  of  our  schools  ; 
and  educators  throughout  the  country  seem  to 
recognize  three  ways  in  which  education  may 
be  improved.  In  the  first  place,  the  public  calls 
imperatively  for  a  widening  of  interest  for  the 
pupils :  the  fight  on  that  point  is  apparently 
almost  over;  it  seems  an  accepted  principle 
that  such  broadening  may  be  brought  about  by 
the  introduction  of  new  branches  into  the  gram- 
mar and  lower  schools. 

The  second  need,  both  for  schools  and  col- 
leges, is  the  development  of  training  methods 
of  study ;  the  disappearance  of  the  idea  that  we 
are  trying  "  to  teach  pupils  what,"  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  idea  that  we  are  trying  to 
"  teach  pupils  how."  To  this  demand  the  pro- 
posed new  studies  distinctly  lead  ;  for  they  can 
be  successfully  taught  only  by  proper  scientific 
methods. 

The  third  and  greatest  need  of  the  schools 
is  that  the  teachers  themselves  be  properly 
trained.    The  new  subjects  and  the  reformed 


ncct>6  ot  tbe  Scbools,  5i 

methods  both  call  for  preparation  improved  in 
kind  and  degree  ;  but  everybody  acquainted 
v^ith  the  schools  of  the  country  knows  that  the 
teachers  have  too  little  training  even  for  the 
old  subjects  and  inferior  methods.  The  body 
of  private  and  public  school  teachers  is  intelli- 
gent, conscientious,  and  painstaking ;  they  are 
doing  much,  but  doing  it  imperfectly,  because 
they  are  imperfectly  educated. 

Of  course  this  defect  is  not  now  discovered 
for  the  first  time.  Many  years  ago,  Horace 
Mann  convinced  the  tax-paying  public  of  Mas- 
sachusetts that  the  community  needed  normal 
schools  for  teachers ;  we  have  now  pedagogic 
courses  in  many  colleges;  and  special  public 
training  schools  are  established  in  a  few  enlight- 
ened cities.  The  inefficiency  of  these  agencies 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  primary,  grammar,  and 
even  secondary  teachers  are  constantly  finding 
employment  without  any  of  these  forms  of  train- 
ing, or  at  least  with  no  evidence  of  benefit  from 
them. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  reasons 
for  the  failure  properly  to  educate  the  teachers 
who  seek  preparation.  What  this  essay  aims 
to  do  is  to  discuss  the  status  of  the  teachers 
who  now  spend  five  days  every  week  in  the 
severe  toil  of  the  school-room  ;  to  ask  how  they 
may  have  their  horizons  widened,  their  work 
brightened,  and  their  efficiency  increased.    Not 


52  lllnfverelte  partfdpatfom 

that  there  are  no  existing  systems  intended  to 
provide  for  teachers  in  service.  Teachers*  insti- 
tutes do  something  in  this  direction,  but  their 
fundamental  defect  is  that  they  are  nearly  all 
"  pour  in  "  institutions.  The  effect  on  the  in- 
tellectual development  is  like  the  effect  of  going 
to  church  on  the  moral  character :  it  is  a  stimu- 
lus, a  suggestion,  and  an  aid,  but  it  is  not  in 
itself  a  religious  life.  More  promising  are  the 
special  teachers'  meetings  held  in  large  cities  ; 
too  often  they  also  become  a  place  for  hearing 
some  one  else  tell  you  "  how  you  ought  to  do 
it ; "  there  is  nothing  to  work  out,  and  little 
reaction  of  the  teachers  on  each  other.  An- 
other suggestion,  which  was  repeatedly  put  for- 
ward at  the  1892  meeting  of  superintendents  in 
Boston,  was  that  teachers  most  need  pedagogic 
reading,  and  especially  a  private  study  of  psy- 
chology. The  suggestiveness  of  such  studies 
is  undeniable,  but  they  are  no  more  a  normal 
education  than  reading  a  geometry  is  mathe- 
matics. Teachers  need  to  acquire,  to  state,  and 
illustrate  principles.  What  they  need  still  more 
is  practice  in  properly  applying  those  principles. 
The  only  device  which  has  been  even  moder- 
ately successful  for  teachers  already  in  service 
is  the  summer  schools  ;  they  furnish  communi- 
cation with  a  new  range  of  thought,  and  with 
scientific  methods  worked  out  carefully ;  and,  so 
far  as  they  are  practice  courses,  there  is  an 


3f acuities  for  ^Training*  53 

opportunity  for  actual  work  and  for  sharpening 
the  faculties.  Against  the  system  there  are 
several  objections ;  it  destroys  the  vacation  of 
teachers  and  taught,  and  it  involves  an  expense 
which  seriously  limits  its  usefulness. 

A  few  years  ago  the  magic  phrase  "  univer- 
sity extension  "  flashed  over  the  country. 

Nor  slacked  the  messenger  his  pace ; 
He  showed  the  sign,  he  named  the  place. 
And,  pressing  forward  like  the  wind, 
Left  clamor  and  surprise  behind. 

No  one  can  deny  the  advantage  to  the  public 
and  to  the  universities  of  this  helpful  relation. 
It  has  had  a  broadening  and  enlarging  effect ; 
it  has  been  a  stimulus  to  many  teachers.  Never- 
theless in  several  respects  university  extension 
has  not  completely  justified  its  name.  In  the 
first  place,  a  part  of  the  work  has  fallen  into 
a  form  which  is  neither  genuine  nor  useful. 
There  is  a  pseudo  "  university  extension  "  which 
has  behind  it  really  no  university  at  all,  but 
simply  a  society,  a  journal,  a  seminary,  a  pro- 
gramme, and  a  lustily  blown  trumpet.  When 
one  hears  of  "  staff  lecturers,"  one  sighs  for  a 
school-extension  system  to  teach  the  instruc- 
tors ;  for  a  staff  lecturer  is  a  person  whom 
no  university  authorizes  to  teach  its  own  stu- 
dents, but  who  is  supposed  to  carry  university 
instruction  to  others  outside.    Such  a  system 


54  "^nivctBit^  Ipartfcfpatlon. 

is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  lecture  bureau 
conducted  on  semi-charitable  principles.  In 
order  to  extend  a  university,  you  must  have  a 
university  to  extend. 

In  the  second  place,  the  university  extension 
teachers  are  able  in  very  few  cases  to  carry  on 
work  of  the  character  of  that  done  within 
college  walls.  What  are  the  characteristics  of 
university  training,  if  not  the  specialization  of 
studies,  the  use  of  elaborate  collections  and 
apparatus,  the  application  of  a  scientific  meth- 
od to  all  branches  of  learning,  and  personal 
contact  with  specialist  instructors,  masters 
of  their  particular  subjects  ?  To  the  popular 
mind,  university  extension  means  the  carrying 
of  teaching  away  from  the  universities  to  outly- 
ing communities;  and  it  is  evident  that  such 
courses  must  be  divorced  from  the  essential 
university  spirit.  They  are  useful,  they  are 
enlightening,  they  are  encouraging,  they  are 
stimulating,  but  they  are  not  of  the  university. 
Sets  of  ten  lectures  cannot  be  made  educa- 
tive in  the  university  sense ;  the  development 
of  the  subject  in  the  mind  of  the  student  is  an 
essential  characteristic  of  university  study ; 
the  element  of  previous  preparation  and  train- 
ing must  also  in  most  cases  be  wanting  in  out- 
side courses.  It  is  impossible  to  duplicate  col- 
lege instruction  without  duplicating  the  college 
and  its  surroundings. 


1  v^^, 

'QXnivcteit^  Bxtenalom    S^/.o^V"  5^ 

— —     '^;:  ^- — '• 

The  third  criticism  on  university  extension 
as  a  system  is  that  it  neglects  its  greatest  op- 
portunity to  improve  education  throughout 
the  country,  in  that  it  does  not  sufficiently  pro- 
vide courses  for  teachers.  The  members  of 
that  profession  are,  indeed,  the  most  interested 
of  the  auditors  of  university  extension  courses ; 
they  make  up  a  considerable  majority  of  the 
hearers ;  and  they  are  almost  the  only  students 
from  whom  systematic  work  can  be  obtained. 
Is  it  not,  then,  reasonable  that  the  time,  mon- 
ey, and  energy  so  generously  poured  into  the 
movement  of  university  extension  should  be 
carefully  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  class 
most  inclined  to  appreciate  its  advantages  ?  Is 
it  not  possible  to  devise  a  system  which  shall 
be  rooted  and  grounded  in  actual  universities 
and  resident  instructors,  which  shall  require 
actual  work  of  the  same  quality,  if  not  precisely 
of  the  same  kind  and  degree,  as  that  asked  of 
college  students,  and  which  shall  interest  the 
great  body  of  conscientious  teachers  now  in 
service  ?  In  other  words,  can  we  not  find  some 
practical  means  by  which  teachers  of  the  public 
schools  may  come  under  the  training  influence 
of  the  universities,  and  through  which  the  uni- 
versities may  learn  how  to  contribute  toward 
supplying  the  needs  of  common-school  educa- 
tion? 

It  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  lay  down  with 


5^  TIlniverBitis  parttclpatlom 

confidence  the  details  of  a  scheme  somewhat 
complicated  and  dependent  on  the  co-operation 
of  colleges  with  school  boards,  superintendents, 
teachers,  and  the  general  public.  But  it  seems 
altogether  possible  to  draw  up  a  general  plan 
of  teachers'  normal  courses  which  shall  be 
offered  by  colleges,  and  to  which  the  name 
"  University  Participation  "  might  not  unrea- 
sonably be  applied.  It  should  be  based  on  the 
following  general  principles : 

1.  The  object  should  be  training,  and  the 
training  of  teachers  already  in  service. 

2.  The  subjects  ought  to  be  those  commonly 
taught  in  primary  and  grammar  schools,  with 
some  reference  also  to  secondary  schools. 

3.  The  methods  ought  to  be  active  and  scien- 
tific, including  the  use  of  apparatus,  collections, 
and  libraries. 

4.  The  expense  must  fall  in  the  long  run  in 
considerable  part  on  the  universities. 

A  feeling  of  responsibility  in  this  matter  has 
sprung  up  simultaneously  in  several  different 
colleges.  Courses  have  been  offered  in  Brown 
University,  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
by  Columbia  through  the  Teachers'  College, 
by  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University,  by  the 
University  of  Minnesota,  and  elsewhere.  The 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  and 
probably  other  scientific  schools,  have  estab- 
lished teachers'  courses  in  science.    From  the 


2)uti2  Of  iSinivcteitics*  57 

experience  of  the  courses  which  have  been 
offered  by  Harvard  University  is  drawn 
much  of  the  material  for  this  essay.  The 
system  thus  suggested  is  not  at  all  the  same 
as  that  of  the  lecture  courses  for  teachers 
offered  by  many  colleges ;  they  have  undoubt- 
edly been  instructive  and  broadening,  but,  like 
almost  all  the  other  devices  for  persons  already 
at  work,  they  are  simply  "  fill  up  "  courses.  They 
arouse  thought,  but  not  action  ;  they  are  ex- 
tensive, but  not  **  intensive,"  they  are  instruc- 
tion, but  they  are  not  education.  They  make 
better  men  and  women,  but  do  not  distinctly 
tend  toward  making  better  teachers. 

The  first  point  to  emphasize  is  that  university 
teachers*  courses  ought  to  be  specific,  and  not 
to  aim  at  a  general  all-round  education.  The 
purpose  of  a  system  of  university  participation 
is  to  aid  the  teachers  to  do,  in  a  better  fashion, 
what  they  are  now  doing ;  practical  psychology 
might  well  form  one  of  the  special  subjects ;  but 
psychology  in  itself  is  not  a  complete  peda- 
gogic education.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work 
must  not  take  the  form  of  simply  furnish- 
ing the  teachers  with  a  basket  of  educational 
oranges  which  they  are  to  deal  out  to  their 
children  one  by  one  until  exhausted.  Several 
of  the  auditors  in  Cambridge  have  complained 
that  in  their  training  courses  the  instructors 
have  given  them  a  great  many  things  which 


58  TUniverslt^  Ipacticipatfom 

cannot  be  used  with  their  pupils.  What  else 
is  the  purpose  of  educational  training,  if  not 
to  put  the  teacher  into  possession  of  more  than 
he  can  possibly  use  ?  No  one  understands  bet- 
ter than  the  college  professor  the  discomfort 
of  poling  with  a  class  across  the  shallows  of 
one's  own  knowledge,  with  the  dread  that 
some  quick  pupil  may  discover  how  nearly  the 
instructor  is  aground.  It  is  not  the  object  in 
Cambridge  to  make  out  a  course  for  the  chil- 
dren and  then  to  teach  up  to  that  course,  but 
to  put  the  teachers  in  possession  of  the  ele- 
ments of  their  subject  and  the  relations  of  the 
parts,  so  that  they  may  intelligently  select  for 
themselves  that  which  they  think  adapted  for 
their  children. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  cut  our  coat  ac- 
cording to  our  cloth ;  the  methods,  so  far  as 
they  go,  must  be  thorough,  but  we  cannot  ex- 
pect to  get  a  great  deal  of  time  from  teachers 
over  whom  the  roller  of  the  week's  work  is 
passing.  Perhaps  two  to  three  hours*  work 
each  week,  besides  the  exercises,  is  all  that  we 
can  safely  demand. 

What  subjects  may  profitably  be  taken  up  in 
teachers*  training  courses  ?  Such  as  are  usually 
taught  in  the  grammar-schools.  Mr.  Mitts 
said,  when  asked  where  Dudley  Chester  got 
his  Latin  and  Greek :  *'  He  had  to  learn  some- 
thing at  Yale."    So  most  of  the  high -school 


proper  Subjects.  59 


teachers  are  college  graduates,  and  it  might  be 
unseemly  to  suggest  that  possibly  they  are  not 
all  prepared  in  all  the  branches  which  they 
teach.  The  greatest  need  is  in  the  grammar- 
schools,  and  for  them  the  universities  ought  to 
make  the  first  provision.  Besides  the  advan- 
tage of  establishing  such  a  point  of  contact  be- 
tween the  universities  and  public  schools,  uni- 
versity participation  will  facilitate  the  intro- 
duction of  new  subjects  where  they  will  do 
most  good.  This  is  the  principle  of  the  three 
courses  established  in  Cambridge,  for  training 
in  geometry,  geography,  and  experimental 
physics. 

The  weekly  exercise  in  geometry  was  attend- 
ed by  fifty  grammar-school  teachers.  Some 
work  was  required  of  the  class,  and  the  in- 
structors thought  there  should  have  been 
problems  or  other  exercises  in  sufficient  num- 
ber to  constitute  a  substantial  piece  of  work 
every  week.  The  course  showed  the  advan- 
tage of  special  training  for  teachers  who  have 
had  nothing  but  a  high -school  training  in 
mathematics.  It  has  helped  them  to  teach  al- 
gebra and  arithmetic  as  well  as  geometry  ;  it 
has  widened  their  intellectual  horizon. 

A  subject  of  even  greater  importance  is  Eng- 
lish ;  probably  none  so  much  needs  the  intelli- 
gent co-operation  and  assistance  of  the  most 
highly  trained  teachers  in  the  country.     The 


^  •dnlverslts  l^articipattom 

public  is  demanding  in  the  most  unmistakable 
terms  that  children  shall  read  something  more 
than  exercises  or  scrappy  excerpts,  and  shall 
write  clearly  and  vigorously.  The  selection  of 
material,  the  succession  of  pieces,  the  methods 
of  getting  children  to  think  about  what  they 
are  reading — in  all  this  teachers  must  have  as- 
sistance or  they  will  fall  behind.  English  com- 
position is  admirably  fitted  for  university  par- 
ticipation, because  it  can  be  conducted  with 
written  exercises  and  with  valuable  criticisms 
before  the  class.  What  the  teachers  need  is  not 
a  set  of  composition  subjects  for  their  children, 
but  ease  and  facility  in  expressing  themselves, 
quickness  to  point  out  ways  of  improving  style, 
and  a  knowledge  of  helpful  methods  and  illustra- 
tions. If  other  languages  are  to  be  introduced 
into  the  grammar-schools,  it  is  imperative  that 
the  teachers  should  have  some  sort  of  contact 
with  experienced  instructors  in  the  languages ; 
but  none  of  the  ordinary  means  of  training,  ex- 
cept the  summer  schools,  affords  any  sufficient 
preparation  in  either  modern  languages  or 
Latin.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  meet  this 
want  by  a  Harvard  course  in  English  composi- 
tion. Like  the  other  courses,  this  was  free  to 
Cambridge  teachers,  and  open  on  payment  of  a 
fee  to  teachers  from  other  places.  There  were 
weekly  lectures  on  English  literature  and  fifteen 
themes  a  year.    For  the  correction  of  the  latter 


JBrxQliBh.  6 1 


the  teachers  paid  a  reader's  fee  of  about  nine 
dollars.  The  principal  trouble  with  the  course 
was  the  same  as  in  some  of  the  others  where 
there  was  no  laboratory  exercise ;  many  of  the 
teacher-pupils  did  not  keep  up  the  written  work, 
in  which  lay  the  principal  value  of  the  course. 

Perhaps  the  set  of  subjects  most  suited  to 
university  participation  are  the  strictly  scien- 
tific. No  one  can  really  teach  botany,  zoology, 
or  physiology,  who  has  not  had  a  practical 
training  course,  with  illustrative  exercises  and 
laboratory  work.  The  so-called  scientific  read- 
ing-books do  not  teach  science.  Kindergarten 
exercises  instill  observation ;  but  the  cutting  up 
of  plants  is  in  itself  no  more  scientific,  no  more 
botanical,  than  the  excision  of  the  tails  of  the 
three  blind  mice  was  zoological.  Columbia 
offers  a  general  course  in  the  teaching  of  science ; 
Harvard  and  the  Institute  of  Technology  have 
dealt  intensively  with  the  teaching  of  single  sub- 
jects. The  Cambridge  school  committee  has 
adopted  the  principle  of  taking  up  one  science 
in  the  grammar-schools,  and  pursuing  it  in  a 
method  as  rigorous  as  the  subject  permits ;  the 
subject  chosen  is  experimental  physics,  and  in 
some  respects  the  university  training  school  in 
that  branch  has  been  the  most  effective  of  the 
series.  It  was  attended  the  first  year  by  twenty- 
two  Cambridge  teachers  who  were  preparing  to 
teach  the  subject  in  the  following  year  ;  a  sec- 


62  iRnivcxQit^  Ipartictpatiom 

ond  group  of  sixteen  teachers  came  up  in  the 
second  year.  The  advantages  of  the  university 
connection  were  here  especially  displayed  ;  the 
.excellent  physical  laboratory  used  for  college 
courses  was  opened  to  teachers  ;  they  came 
into  personal  relations  with  an  experienced  col- 
lege professor ;  there  was  constant  opportunity 
for  discussion;  the  teachers  themselves  were 
much  interested.  On  the  other  side,  the  in- 
structor freely  admits  that  he  has  learned  much 
from  this  class  as  to  the  difficulties  of  his  sub- 
ject and  the  best  method  of  teaching  it,  and 
he  has  since  worked  out  the  results  of  the  two 
years'  courses  in  a  text-book. 

A  quite  similar  system  was  pursued  in  the 
Harvard  course  in  geography,  to  which  about 
sixty  teachers  came  once  a  week  to  listen  to  a 
lecture.  The  trouble  here  was  that,  while  the 
university  maps  and  apparatus  were  available 
for  the  lectures,  it  was  difficult  to  suggest  simple 
apparatus  which  is  cheap  enough  to  be  furnished 
to  the  schools ;  but  the  work  has  been  stimulat- 
ing and  helpful ;  the  teachers  have  acquired  a 
new  view  of  their  subject,  and  a  large  body  of 
illustrations,  and  the  instructor  drew  upon  the 
experience  gained  from  this  connection  with 
teachers  in  service ;  he  has  since  prepared  a  care- 
ful list  of  maps  for  school  use,  and  another  of 
lantern-slides  illustrating  geography. 

The  course  in  botany  offered  by  the  uni- 


Sciences  anD  DfBtorij,  63 

versity  was  followed  by  about  seventy  teachers. 
It  was  strictly  a  working  course,  the  director 
applying  the  whole  amount  appropriated  by  the 
university  to  the  employment  of  six  assistants, 
and  a  college  laboratory  being  set  apart  on 
Saturday  for  this  exercise.  The  teachers  paid 
about  three  dollars  each  for  the  material,  care- 
fully grown  in  advance,  for  their  uses.  The 
course  has  illuminated  the  subject  for  the  teach- 
ers, and  through  them  for  the  children  whom 
they  are  now  teaching. 

Another  subject  for  university  participation 
is  history  and  civil  government.  Teachers  need 
to  be  made  aware  of  the  possible  improvements 
in  the  teaching  of  these  neglected  subjects,  and 
especially  in  the  use  of  material  on  what  may  be 
called  the  laboratory  method.  A  good  course 
of  this  kind  ought  to  give  to  a  teacher  a  fund  of 
valuable  material  and  illustration,  and  a  train- 
ing in  the  teaching  of  history  as  a  developing 
subject,  rather  than  as  a  memory  subject.  The 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  Columbia  have 
both  awakened  to  this  necessity.  The  former 
has  had  a  "  Saturday  Class  "  in  American  his- 
tory ;  the  latter  a  course  on  "  methods  of  teach- 
ing history  in  secondary  schools." 

Mathematical  studies,  English,  other  lan- 
guages, sciences,  and  history,  are  evidently  the 
principal  subjects  which  lend  themselves  to  this 
method  of  treatment.    To  this  list  many  edu- 


^4  'ClnlversitB  iparticfpatfon* 

cators  would  probably  add  high-school  studies 
— classics,  algebra,  chemistry,  advanced  physics, 
and  other  natural  sciences,  and  others  would 
add  formal  pedagogy.  It  must  not  be  forgotten, 
however,  that  the  first  purpose  of  the  univer- 
sity participation  is  to  come  to  the  rescue  of 
the  large  bodies  of  helpless  teachers  in  lower 
grades,  the  persons  who  have  most  opportunity 
and  the  least  preparation  for  the  improvement 
of  the  education  of  the  country  at  large.  High- 
school  teachers  are  already  fairly  provided 
for,  both  in  preliminary  training  and  in  present 
apparatus ;  most  of  the  teachers'  courses  now 
opened  by  colleges  are  intended  for  them  ex- 
clusively. As  for  pedagogy,  that  is  from  the 
point  of  view  of  university  participation  only 
one  subject  out  of  many  ;  if  teachers  learn  how 
to  teach  geography  or  English  or  physics,  they 
are  getting  a  pedagogic  education.  Pedagogy, 
as  such,  should  follow,  and  not  precede,  the 
special  training  courses,  so  far  as  the  teachers 
now  in  service  are  concerned. 

The  methods  to  be  pursued  in  these  courses 
must  depend  in  part  upon  the  relations  of 
place  between  the  universities  and  the  taught. 
Wherever  possible,  university  participation  in- 
struction should  be  given  in  the  university 
buildings.  This  is  not  a  mere  question  of  con- 
venience to  the  teacher  ;  it  puts  the  teachers 
and  taught  into  a  different  relation ;  it  empha- 


^"^^ 


-^^^.f^ 


sizes  the  fact  that  it  is  university  instruction  of 
a  special  kind ;  and  it  is  absolutely  essential  in 
laboratory,  museum,  or  library  courses. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  schools 
which  need  the  help  are  not  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  colleges.  In  such  cases  Ma- 
homet may  go  with  some  subjects  to  the  moun- 
tain. History,  English  composition,  literature, 
and  possibly  geography,  may  be  taught  away 
from  university  surroundings,  provided  they 
are  taught  in  that  rigorous  scientific  method 
which  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  univer- 
sity instruction. 

Wherever  the  classes  meet,  they  should  be 
conducted  by  regular  university  teachers  of 
experience.  The  work  cannot  be  delegated  to 
assistants,  for  a  principal  advantage  is  the  con- 
tact with  the  mind  of  the  trained  instructor. 
Experience  shows  that  such  men  are  more  like- 
ly to  appreciate  the  difficulties  of  teachers  and 
of  pupils  than  are  men  less  familiar  with  the 
subjects  and  less  accustomed  to  deal  with  a 
variety  of  minds.  To  secure  the  services  of 
such  teachers  is  difficult,  because  they  are  al- 
ways busy.  This,  however,  is  not  so  much  a 
question  of  time  as  of  expense  :  if  the  university 
has  a  sufficient  teaching  force,  one  man  in  each 
department  can  always  be  found  for  such  work ; 
if  college  professors  can,  with  great  loss  of  time 
and  energy,  travel  many  miles  to  deliver  lect- 
5 


^  IRnivcxeit^  participatiom 

ures  in  university  extension,  why  may  not 
these  same  men  be  secured  for  university  par- 
ticipation ?  Besides  the  formal  lectures  of  the 
instructor,  he  will  naturally  draw  up  a  syllabus 
or  list  of  topics  such  as  is  common  in  college 
or  university  extension  courses.  Perhaps  the 
greatest  aid  that  can  be  rendered  by  the  in- 
structor is  to  suggest  illustrations  suitable  for 
class  use ;  the  expert  in  any  subject  ought  to 
have  at  command  a  great  fund  of  instances,  and 
even  of  anecdotes,  which  would  interest  chil- 
dren. It  may  be  said  that  such  illustrations  are 
frequently  to  be  found  in  books ;  there  is,  how- 
ever, a  peculiar  freshness  in  getting  them  at 
first-hand,  and  a  distinct  convenience  in  having 
them  recorded  in  the  note-books  along  with  the 
general  suggestions  upon  the  question  under 
discussion.  For  instance,  in  a  lecture  in  the 
Cambridge  course  on  geometry,  the  instructor 
suggested  four  different  problems  in  measur- 
ing the  height  of  buildings  and  the  width  of 
streams,  and  showed  how  each  could  practi- 
cably be  solved  with  very  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive apparatus.  In  the  course  on  geography,  the 
lecturer  illustrated  the  stopping  of  the  water- 
courses by  new  streams  working  into  the  side 
or  upper  end  of  a  valley,  by  a  little  sketch  of  a 
river  now  flowing  into  Lake  Erie,  of  which 
the  branches  all  point  away  from  the  mouth  ; 
and  which  consequently  once  ran  the  other 


1fllU0trat(on0.  67 


way.  The  instructor  may  also  aid  the  teacher 
by  recommending  simple  and  inexpensive  ap- 
paratus and  appliances,  such  as  can  easily  be 
made  by  teachers  or  by  school  boys  and  girls 
for  their  own  use.  In  other  subjects,  such  as 
history  and  literature,  may  come  in  the  sugges- 
tion of  interesting  methods  for  drawing  out  the 
children's  inventive  faculties.  It  has  been  ob- 
jected that  university  teachers  are  not  compe- 
tent to  judge  what  can  or  can  not  be  presented 
to  children  or  be  understood  by  them.  Pos- 
sibly university  instructors  are  a  little  less 
sceptical  about  the  intelligence  of  children  than 
other  teachers;  but  experience  shows  that  a 
discussion  between  two  people  who  look  at 
the  subject  from  two  different  points  of  view, 
is  likely  to  be  helpful  to  them  both,  and  that 
the  result  will  assist  the  children.  One  sugges- 
tion which  has  not  been  tested,  but  which  seems 
rather  promising,  is  that  occasionally  the  in- 
structor should  have  before  him  an  actual  class 
of  average  children,  in  order  to  show  how  he 
would  present  a  difficult  point,  and  to  elicit 
suggestions  and  discussions. 

How  far  the  instructors  can  do  anything  out- 
side their  lecture-rooms  and  laboratories  is  not 
yet  plain.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Cam- 
bridge courses  feels  confident  that  he  could  en- 
force his  instruction  if  he  could  follow  it  into  the 
class-room  and  there  make  suggestions.     This 


63  tSinivctBit^  Iparttcipatiom 

is,  of  course,  impossible  with  large  systems  of 
schools,  because  of  the  time  it  would  take ;  and 
most  school  boards  also  would  feel  a  natural 
hesitation  in  permitting  a  person  not  under 
their  control  to  make  official  visits.  A  part  of 
the  service  of  the  instructor  might  well  be  to 
visit  teachers*  meetings ;  or  he  could  lay  out 
work  for  such  meetings  and  see  that  it  was 
properly  carried  on. 

An  essential  feature  of  university  participa- 
tion is  to  get  a  return  in  work  and  thought 
from  the  teachers  themselves.  The  lack  of 
such  a  reaction  was  felt  by  the  instructors  in 
geometry  and  geography  in  the  Cambridge 
courses.  It  was  not  so  with  the  laboratory 
course  in  physics;  there  the  instructor  was, 
with  reason,  much  delighted  with  the  alertness 
of  mind  and  the  disposition  to  do  something 
which  he  found  in  the  teachers  who  came  to 
him.  They  were  selected  from  about  twice 
their  number  of  applicants,  and  they  included 
for  the  most  part  teachers  whose  previous  suc- 
cess has  caused  their  advancement  to  the  high- 
est grammar  grades.  The  enthusiasm  and 
freshness  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  in  that 
course  suggests  the  importance  of  embodying 
laboratory  methods  of  some  kind  in  all  the  sub- 
jects thus  undertaken.  In  such  a  case  it  would 
be  desirable  to  apply  some  kind  of  final  test  at 
the  end  of  a  course,  or  rather  it  would  be  pos- 


tTeacbere'  IDClorft,  69 


sible  for  an  instructor  to  base  on  the  laboratory 
work  of  each  teacher  a  judgment  as  to  whether 
that  teacher  ought  to  be  certified  as  prepared 
to  teach  the  subject  which  she  had  been  pur- 
suing. 

Some  provision  must  be  made  for  the  ex- 
pense of  such  an  undertaking,  but  it  is  no  more 
difficult  than  to  raise  the  money  for  university 
extension.  The  cost  of  such  courses,  if  carried 
on  in  the  regular  habitat  of  the  instructor,  is 
much  less  than  might  generally  be  supposed. 
Radcliffe  College  for  women  is  manned  entirely 
by  instructors  and  professors  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege ;  and  the  uniform  cost  of  instruction  in  that 
institution  is  three  hundred  dollars  for  a  course 
of  sixty  exercises,  with  whatever  collateral  read- 
ing of  papers  and  so  on  may  be  necessary,  and 
four  hundred  dollars  for  a  course  of  ninety  ex- 
ercises. There  is  no  difficulty  in  finding  uni- 
versity teachers,  young  and  old,  who  are  will- 
ing to  undertake  that  work,  partly  for  the 
money  and  partly  out  of  public  spirit. 

A  year's  course  for  busy  teachers  ought  not 
to  require  each  week  more  than  one  exercise 
of  two  hours ;  that  is,  three  hundred  dollars  or 
four  hundred  dollars  a  year  ought  to  furnish 
one  such  course  for  a  number  varying  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred,  according  to  the  nat- 
ure of  the  subject.  In  a  class  of  sixty  a  fee 
of  five  dollars  each  would  sometimes  pay  for 


70  'ClnfverBlts  participation, 

the  instruction ;  in  some  cities,  therefore,  such 
courses  might  be  provided  simply  by  the  sub- 
scriptions of  those  who  participate.  Fees  tend 
to  defeat  a  main  purpose  of  the  system,  wiz.y 
the  taking  of  one  course  after  another  for  a 
series  of  years.  The  difficulty  has  been  seri- 
ously felt  by  university  extension,  which  has 
encountered  the  indisposition  of  the  same  peo- 
ple to  pay  year  after  year  for  the  same  general 
kind  of  instruction.  Another  method  would 
be  for  school  boards  to  appropriate  a  sum  suf- 
ficient to  compensate  the  colleges  for  carrying 
on  the  work.  This  solution  seems  difficult  in 
Cambridge  ;  the  city  is  liberal  with  its  schools 
and  desires  to  improve  them ;  the  university 
is  inclined  to  co-operate ;  but  no  money  could 
be  appropriated  that  would  seem  to  be  in  any 
way  a  subsidy  for  the  college.  In  some  places 
such  a  scheme  seems  practicable,  especially  if 
the  instructors  come  from  a  distance.  In  the 
city  of  Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  for  example,  such  a 
system  has  been  organized. 

A  third  alternative,  the  payment  for  such 
courses  by  private  subscription,  is  only  a  tem- 
porary resource.  If  the  system  is  to  be  estab- 
lished in  any  permanent  form,  it  must  rest  on 
the  public  spirit  and  generosity  of  the  univer- 
sities. They  must  do  what  they  do  for  their 
regular  students.  "  I  think  the  best  way," 
writes  the  president  of   a  famous  university 


Bspenae*  71 


south  of  New  York, "  would  be  to  provide  such 
courses  at  the  expense  of  the  universities,  and 
to  draw  in  fees  for  tuition  from  those  who  have 
the  advantages  of  the  plan."  This  is  not  sim- 
ply a  case  of  noblesse  oblige ;  there  are  certain 
very  practical  advantages  which  the  univer- 
sities would  gain  from  such  a  plan.  They 
establish  relations  with  other  systems  of  edu- 
cation than  their  own;  they  put  to  a  more 
extended  use  the  apparatus  given  them  in  trust 
for  the  advancement  of  learning ;  by  improv- 
ing the  schools  they  help  to  broaden  the  whole 
community,  and  eventually  to  increase  the 
number  of  college  students.  They  are  thus  to 
become  powerful  agents  to  improve  the  in- 
struction in  the  lower  schools,  especially  in 
languages,  history,  and  science,  so  that  the 
college  and  university  work  may  begin  on  a 
higher  plane.  Where  high  -  school  teachers 
have  the  proper  opportunities  and  are  willing 
to  organize,  they  may  do  the  same  kind  of 
work  for  the  teachers  in  lower  grades  ;  but  for 
the  high -school  teachers  themselves,  and  for 
large  cities,  the  work  must  be  done  by  the 
universities  or  not  at  all. 

It  is  plain  that  this  system  can  be  most  ad- 
vantageously applied  only  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  large  cities;  but  a  study  of 
the  relation  between  the  colleges  and  the  cities 
of  the  country  shows  that  of  the  fifty  largest 


72  'Clnfversiti?  partfclpatfon. 

cities,  thirty -eight  are  within  easy  reach  of  a 
college  or  university ;  in  those  cities  there  are 
1,300,000  children  at  school  and  26,200  teachers. 
That  is,  one-ninth  of  the  children  and  one-tenth 
of  the  teachers  in  the  country  could  be  aided 
by  university  participation.  It  seems  a  scheme 
which  promises  large  returns  to  the  country 
against  a  moderate  outlay  of  money,  time,  and 
strength. 

That  the  universities  are  willing  to  do  their 
part  in  this  matter  is  proven  by  many  answers 
from  the  presidents  of  universities  in  or  near 
cities  to  letters  of  inquiry  ;  not  one  is  unfavor- 
able; several  refer  to  successful  experience. 
The  school  authorities  must  do  their  part  also. 
It  is  not  enough  that  one  teacher  here  and 
there  should  avail  herself  of  these  opportuni- 
ties. School  boards  must  insist  that  no  teacher 
shall  be  employed  who  remains  a  poor  teacher 
on  any  subject  where  she  has  had  the  oppor- 
tunity to  perfect  herself.  Those  who  already 
have  had  a  proper  education  would  naturally 
be  exempt;  the  teacher  who  is  too  apathetic 
to  improve  herself  ought  not  to  be  retained. 
In  Cambridge  the  school  committee  have  re- 
quired teachers  of  specified  grades  to  attend 
the  training  courses  in  geography,  botany,  or 
geometry.  The  matter  might  be  permanently 
arranged  very  simply  by  any  school  board 
which  should  arrange  a  suitable  set  of  courses 


2lpplfcatfon.  73 


with  a  neighboring  university,  and  then  should 
vote  that  after  one  year  it  would  employ  no 
teacher  who  had  not  a  satisfactory  normal 
training,  let  us  say  in  geography;  at  the  end 
of  another  year,  to  employ  no  teacher  who  had 
not  had  a  satisfactory  training  also  in  English ; 
and  so  on  till  every  teacher  had  shown  her 
ability  to  teach  every  subject  which  she  under- 
took. 

In  spite  of  the  many  practical  difficulties 
stated,  and  many  others  undiscovered  by  the 
writer,  the  advantages  of  university  participa- 
tion are  obvious.  For  the  schools,  the  system 
will  facilitate,  and  in  some  cases  alone  will 
make  possible,  the  remodelling  of  the  curricu- 
lum ;  and  it  will  add  daily  to  the  interest  and 
efficiency  of  the  teaching.  To  the  teachers, 
the  system  promises  a  relief  from  the  endless 
monotony  of  ordinary  class  exercises,  and  gives 
them  a  broader  and  surer  hold  upon  what  they 
are  doing.  The  normal  schools  will  be  stimu- 
lated if  it  be  found  that  their  graduates  are,  in 
the  power  of  teaching  the  ordinary  subjects, 
inferior  to  those  who  have  had  the  training 
courses.  To  the  colleges,  the  system  will  be 
of  great  advantage  ;  for  the  instructors  will 
gain  the  clearness  of  understanding  which 
arises  from  meeting  difficulties  suggested  to 
the  minds  of  others;  and  preparation  for  col- 
lege will  eventually  be  improved.    To  parents. 


74  tlnfvcrsits  Iparttclpatlon* 

the  advantage  will  be  the  better  training  of  the 
children  and  the  saving  which  will  come  from 
the  harmonious  working  together  of  the  dif- 
ferent departments  of  education.  To  the  chil- 
dren, it  will  be  one  of  the  instruments  in  build- 
ing up  character.  To  the  country,  it  will  aid 
in  the  advance  of  learning,  for  it  will  help  the 
study  of  each  subject  from  the  beginning  to 
the  highest  point  of  specialization. 


IV. 

ibow  to  Stut)^  ibtstori^* 


"  Good  wine  needs  no  bush,"  and  if  there 
were  need  to  urge  the  reading  of  history  it 
would  be  a  proof  that  history  is  too  dull  and 
unattractive  to  be  read.  We  read  history  all 
the  time,  not  only  in  text-books  and  formal  his- 
tories, but  in  the  magazines  and  the  newspa- 
pers ;  history  is  philologically  almost  exactly 
the  same  word  as  story,  and  the  world  is  as 
determined  now  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  the 
Athenians  "  to  hear  and  tell  some  new  thing." 

History  in  a  more  formal  sense  has  been  in- 
troduced into  many  schools  of  every  grade 
throughout  the  Union,  and  there  has  sprung  up 
a  literature  of  advice,  suggestion,  and  illustra- 
tion on  proper  ways  of  teaching  the  subject. 
Hence,  wherever  there  is  a  good  school  and  a 
good  teacher,  history  is  sure  to  be  taught. 

Nevertheless  reading  history  and  teaching 
history  are  neither  of  them  necessarily  study- 
ing history.  What  we  learn  from  the  atmos- 
phere of  newspaper  gossip  in  which  we  are  all 

(;5) 


7^  Ibow  to  StuDs  tbietot^. 

enveloped,  even  what  we  gain  in  the  school- 
room, lacks  the  essential  quality  of  study,  be- 
cause it  usually  means  the  acceptance  of  what- 
ever reaches  us  from  the  first  comer,  the  first 
book,  or  the  first  teacher.  Learning  by  heart 
tables  of  dynasties,  presidents,  or  battles,  is  not 
studying  history.  Brer  Rabbit  was  always 
"studyinV'  but  study  with  him  meant,  not  com- 
mitting the  statement  of  a  text-book,  but  put- 
ting his  mind  upon  the  problem  before  him, 
considering  how  far  he  could  depend  upon  the 
historical  statements  made  to  him  by  Brer  Fox, 
and  soberly  discounting  the  oratorical  flights  of 
Brer  Turkey  Buzzard.  The  study  of  history, 
then,  means  the  attempt  to  form  for  one's  self  an 
independent  judgment  upon  historical  events, 
a  judgment  based  upon  the  most  trustworthy 
accounts  within  reach. 

In  the  study  of  history  the  first  essential  is 
that  we  should  have  before  us  not  general  his- 
tory but  some  definite  subject.  Well  does  the 
writer  remember  his  struggle  to  learn  Free- 
man's Outlines,  and  ill  does  he  remember  any 
part  of  those  Outlines,  except  the  distinction 
between  orthodox  Christianity  and  Arianism — 
and  just  what  that  distinction  was  has  escaped 
him  at  this  moment.  Such  a  book  as  Lavisse's 
Political  History  of  Europe  is  interesting,  sug- 
gestive, and  broadening,  but  it  only  attempts 
to  describe  tendencies  and  general  results.   For 


Timbat  ITS  Stut)fi?     -</^^/^<^^^^ 


purposes  of  study,  a  general  history  is  no  more 
possible  than  a  general  text-book  on  science, 
or  a  general  treatise  on  mathematics,  or  a  gen- 
eral history  of  all  literature. 

What  subjects  shall  we  choose,  especially  if 
we  have  no  guiding  teacher  or  sagacious  friend 
to  lay  out  a  course  for  us  ?  There  used  to  be  a 
current  idea  that  any  book  answered  the  pur- 
pose ;  that  Rollin's  Ancient  History  and  Jo- 
sephus  were  intellectual  nutriment  even  for 
boys  and  girls.  There  is  a  malicious  Italian 
story  about  a  condemned  criminal  who  was  re- 
prieved on  condition  that  he  should  read  all  of 
Guicciardini's  Wars  of  the  Italian  Republics ; 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  volume  he  returned  to 
the  executioner  and  asked  to  have  the  original 
sentence  completed.  Many  things  that  have 
happened  even  to  Italian  republics  are  not 
worth  studying.  On  the  other  hand,  the  world 
has  been  full  of  great  crises  when  men  came 
forward  and  performed  splendid  deeds,  made 
new  civilizations,  and  built  up  commonwealths. 
Let  us  choose  such  great  periods. 

What  are  the  criteria  of  selection  ?  In  the 
first  place,  since  the  field  is  so  enormous,  both 
in  the  period  of  time  covered  and  in  the  number 
of  nations  which  have  had  interesting  history, 
we  surely  may  find  a  few  countries  which  by 
their  central  situation,  their  importance  as  lead- 
ing powers,  their  influence  on  later  civilization 


78  l)ow  to  StuOis  Ibistors. 

deserve  the  attention  of  all  ages.  Let  us  choose, 
therefore,  countries  which  have  nurtured  strik- 
ing, strong,  characteristic,  and  original  men 
such  as  Themistocles,  Sulla,  Charlemagne,  Lu- 
ther, Richelieu,  Cromwell,  Bismarck,  and  An- 
drew Jackson.  Let  us  especially  choose  coun- 
tries which  have  raised  men  who  summed  up 
in  themselves  for  the  time  being  the  nation's 
life,  men  such  as  Pericles,  Augustus,  Hilde- 
brand,  William  of  Orange,  William  Pitt,  and 
Abraham  Lincoln.  Let  us  choose  out  of  uni- 
versal history  the  nebulae  of  human  events  in 
which  sparkle  the  stars  of  human  character. 

In  the  next  place  let  us  avoid  wars  and  ru- 
mors of  wars.  Of  all  subjects  upon  which  the 
human  intellect  can  be  employed  military 
history  is  one  of  the  least  profitable.  To  follow 
campaigns  on  the  map  teaches  military  science, 
but  it  does  not  teach  history.  To  know  the 
names  of  battles  and  of  commanders  and  the 
numbers  of  their  troops  is  to  follow  the  method 
of  a  worthy  but  wrong-headed  teacher  of  art  in 
a  young  ladies*  seminary  in  Massachusetts. 

"  What  is  this  picture  ?  "  she  asked  at  an  ex- 
amination. 

"  It  is  a  picture  of  the  Apollo  Belvidere." 

"  Where  is  that  statue  ?  " 

"  In  Rome." 

"  In  what  part  of  Rome  ?  ** 

"  In  the  Vatican.'* 


Cbofce  of  Subjects.  79 

"  In  what  part  of  the  Vatican  ?  " 

"  In  the  Cortile  del  Belvedere,  second  corner 
cabinet." 

"  That  will  do." 

Yet  a  knowledge  of  the  ground  plan  of  a  mu- 
seum is  no  more  useless  to  the  ordinary  student 
than  an  acquaintance  with  the  evolutions  of  a 
battle ;  both  are  for  experts  only,  except  in  so 
far  as  either  puts  us  in  the  place  of  artists,  or  of 
the  commanders  of  troops,  and  enables  us  to 
share  their  spirit  and  to  sympathize  with  their 
purpose.  Hence  let  us  choose  no  period  sim- 
ply because  it  is  studded  with  wars. 

Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  plea  of  his- 
torical writers  that  times  of  peace  are  so  dull 
and  uneventful  that  the  chronicle  of  a  happy, 
contented,  and  advancing  people  has  little  to 
attract  the  attention  ;  while  wars  mark  the  con- 
flict of  great  moral  principles,  the  establishment 
of  a  new  order  of  things.  Some  of  them  do  so ; 
but  what  of  the  interminable  annals  of  blood  in 
India,  wars  in  which  one  bad  throne  or  dynasty 
simply  succeeds  another  ?  The  victories  of  Ma- 
rius  over  the  Cimbri  and  Teutoni  were  decisive 
because  they  beat  back  the  tide  of  barbarian  im- 
migration for  four  hundred  years ;  the  battle  of 
Tours  was  decisive  because  the  great  organiza- 
tion of  Christendom  stopped  the  advance  of 
the  great  Moslem  organization  ;  and  Waterloo 
was  decisive  simply  because  it  permitted  the 


8o  ibow  to  StuOi2  1bl0tori2^ 

nations  of  Europe  each  to  work  out  its  own 
salvation  without  the  interference  of  France. 
The  interest  of  the  student  is  not  in  the  day  of 
battle,  but  in  the  days  after,  when  the  effect  of 
the  military  struggle  becomes  evident 

The  next  essential  is  that  we  should  study  the 
history  of  people  who  thought.  The  ancient 
Germans  were  such  good  military  men  that 
they  finally  beat  the  Romans,  but  their  history 
is  of  less  account  to  the  student  than  that  of 
long-peaceful  Switzerland.  Above  all  let  us 
study  the  history  of  nations  that  thought  about 
government  and  law,  because  those  nations 
have  contributed  to  that  stock  of  political  ideas 
out  of  which  our  own  government  is  built. 

Perhaps  we  may  now  choose  the  history  of 
half  a  dozen  nations,  during  limited  periods 
when  the  minds  of  men  were  most  active. 
First  of  these  in  time,  purpose,  and  importance 
is  the  history  of  Greece,  during  the  splendor 
of  Athens.  The  struggle  of  the  Greeks  against 
Persia  is  one  of  the  noblest  of  all  assertions  of 
freedom  against  despotism,  and  has  inspired 
hundreds  of  armies  to  stand  resolute  against 
great  numbers.  It  is  a  period  abounding  in 
great  as  well  as  in  despicable  characters,  a  peri- 
od full  of  romantic  inspiration,  prolific  in  politi- 
cal inventions,  glowing  with  literature  and  art ; 
a  period  which  has  had  something  to  teach  to 
every  western  nation.     Then  comes  the  counter 


Selected  Bpocbs,  8i 

epoch  of  Rome  the  conqueror — that  is,  Rome 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars  to  the 
widest  extension  of  the  Empire.  It  is  a  time 
full  of  the  overmastering  power  of  organiza- 
tion, of  combination,  of  the  repression  of  ex- 
cesses, of  well-knit  administrative  discipline,  of 
experiments  in  government,  successful  and  un- 
successful. Next,  chronologically,  comes  the 
period  of  the  Crusades  ;  though  the  military 
result  was  the  defeat  and  almost  the  disgrace 
of  the  Christians,  they  restored  to  Europe  an 
interest  in  literature  and  science,  and  began 
for  the  second  time  to  unite  the  histories  of 
Europe  and  Asia. 

The  next  era  especially  worthy  of  study  is 
the  movement  known  in  Italy  as  the  Renais- 
sance— the  rebirth  of  literature,  art,  and  philos- 
ophy. No  period  in  the  world's  history  more 
abounds  in  magnificent  characters,  such  as  Dan- 
te, Petrarch,  Cosmo  di  Medici,  and  Can  Grande 
della  Scala.  Of  equal  importance  as  a  study 
of  human  character,  and  more  interesting  to 
Americans  on  account  of  its  immediate  effect 
on  our  forefathers,  was  the  Reformation,  the 
counterpart  of  the  Renaissance.  It  was  the  re- 
assertion  of  the  idea  that  people's  thoughts  are 
not  to  be  cut  and  dried  for  them  by  earthly 
rulers,  or  by  spiritual  potentates.  While  the 
English  Reformation  is  to  us  the  most  in- 
teresting episode  in  that  epoch,  perhaps  the 
6 


82  ibow  to  StuDg  tbistors. 

most  instructive  single  period  of  English  his- 
tory is  the  struggle  with  the  Stuarts,  during 
the  whole  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Here 
began  to  take  form  those  mighty  ideas  of  free 
representative  government  which  are  the  great 
political  force  of  the  present  age.  In  this  cen- 
tury sparkle  many  of  the  greatest  names  in  the 
history  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race ;  it  is  the 
time  of  Shakespeare  and  Bacon,  of  Milton  and 
Cromwell,  and  of  William  the  Third.  French 
history  is  of  particular  interest  because  France 
has  ever  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne  been 
a  sort  of  nucleus  of  European  politics  and  con- 
stitutional development.  Out  of  that  long,  rich 
history  the  most  absorbing  period  is  that  of 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  from  1789  to  18 15,  during  which  the 
French  experienced  almost  every  form  of  gov- 
ernment known  to  man,  from  the  despotism  of 
a  tyrant  to  the  worse  despotism  of  a  conven- 
tion. 

Since  the  end  of  that  crisis  there  have  been 
two  remarkable  episodes  in  modern  history. 
The  first  is  the  reconstitution  of  Europe, 
grouped  about  the  unification  of  Germany. 
We  do  not  realize  that  in  ages  to  come  the 
gathering  together  of  three  hundred  mutually 
repellant  German  states  into  one  nation,  and  of 
half  a  dozen  Italian  principalities  into  another, 
will  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  marvels  of 


•ffntroDuctoci?  3Book6,  83 

history ;  nor  that  it  has  been  accomplished  by 
two  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  last  four  cen- 
turies, Bismarck  and  Cavour.  The  other  epi- 
sode comes  closer  home  to  us ;  it  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  free  republic  in  America,  the 
long,  slow-burning  struggle  against  slavery, 
leaping  into  the  flame  of  the  Civil  War,  out  of 
which  a  new  nation  has  arisen  with  renewed 
power. 

Having  selected  the  period,  the  next  step  is 
to  find  the  material.  First  of  all  some  brief 
books  are  necessary,  to  cover  the  whole  ground 
in  a  summary  fashion.  There  is  now  such  a 
supply  of ''  Series  "  and  "  Eras  "  and  "  Epochs," 
of  little  books  systematically  taking  up  the  his- 
tory of  particular  countries,  that  on  any  inter- 
esting period  a  good  "  eye-opener  "  is  readily 
to  be  found.  It  should  be  read,  read  carefully, 
and  read  more  than  once,  so  that  the  student 
may  have  in  his  njind  the  dimensions  of  his 
subject — but  it  is  never  to  be  memorized. 
Such  a  book  corresponds  to  the  architect's 
preliminary  sketch.  Then  comes  the  process 
of  broadening,  the  working  out  of  the  ground 
plan  of  the  historical  edifice.  For  this  purpose 
the  general  student  should  choose  such  stand- 
ard works  as  are  recommended  by  teachers, 
or  by  such  guides  to  historical  study  as  W.  F. 
Allen's  "  History  Topics ; "  C.  K.  Adams's  "  Man- 
ual of  Historical  Literature ; "  Gordy  and  Twit- 


84  f)ow  to  Stu&s  1bf6tors. 

chell's  "  Manual,"  and  B.  A.  Hinsdale's  "  How  to 
Study  and  Teach  History.'*  William  E.  Foster's 
"  References  to  the  History  of  Presidential  Ad- 
ministrations ; "  Edward  Channing's  "  Guide  to 
the  Study  of  American  History,"  and  R.  R. 
Bowker's  "  Reader's  Guide,"  give  lists  of  books 
on  American  history,  with  some  criticism  of 
their  relative  value.  In  the  better  brief  books 
on  any  period  will  be  found  lists  of  classified 
authorities.  One  may  read  history  in  one 
author ;  one  can  study  history  only  by  a  com- 
parison of  various  authors. 

Just  here  comes  in  the  value  to  the  student 
of  owning  his  books.  There  is  no  more  useful 
adjunct  to  the  study  of  history  than  a  good, 
sharp  lead-pencil,  or  red-ink  pen,  with  which 
to  annotate  the  margins  of  the  volume  that  one 
is  using.  Very  few  books  have  a  convenient 
apparatus  of  running  headings  and  dates,  and 
there  is  no  better  way  of  fixing  attention  than 
to  put  in  over  the  page-headings  the  missing 
guide  to  the  contents.  An  exercise  still  bet- 
ter, but  which  does  not  interfere  with  that  just 
described,  is  to  make  out  in  one's  own  mind 
a  logical  analysis  of  the  book  as  one  goes  on, 
and  to  write  the  headings  of  that  analysis, 
point  by  point,  in  the  margin.  A  third  con- 
venient method  is  to  indicate  the  author's 
thought  by  underlining  the  significant  words 
in    each    paragraph.    These  three    processes, 


•Ql0e  ot  :©ooft0,  85 


consistently  combined,  accustom  the  mind  to 
search  for  the  essential  thought  of  the  pages 
before  it,  and  to  put  into  brief  and  significant 
terms  an  abstract  of  that  thought.  Whenever 
the  student  has  occasion  to  use  the  same  vol- 
ume again,  he  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  the 
argument  comes  back  to  him  through  his  own 
abstract.  Again,  one  may  enjoy  in  his  own 
books  that  which  would  be  a  crime  if  committed 
on  the  book  of  another ;  he  may  write  down  his 
reasons  for  agreement  or  disagreement  with  his 
author.  In  the  Harvard  College  library  are  the 
volumes  which  Carlyle  used  in  preparing  his 
"  Life  of  Cromwell,"  and  nothing  could  be  more 
humorously  characteristic  of  the  writer  than 
some  of  the  comments  which  he  has  scribbled 
on  the  margins  of  his  pompous  authorities : 
"  It  was  long  after  '  this ' "— "  Stuff ! "  "  Error  " 
— "  Never  above  6."  If  you  must  use  bor- 
rowed books,  then  let  your  attempt  be  to  re- 
turn them  as  clean  as  they  came,  and  to  take 
whatever  abstracts  you  can  in  a  note-book  of 
your  own.  The  point  of  all  this  system  is  that 
by  seeing,  or  trying  to  see,  what  is  in  the  au- 
thor's mind,  you  furnish  yourself  with  that  con- 
densed outline  around  which  historical  knowl- 
edge must  be  built. 

To  keep  such  an  outline  in  view  is  an  easy 
task,  provided  one  uses  only  one  or  two  paral- 
lel authorities ;  but,  as  the  student  proceeds, 


86  i)ow  to  StuOi?  Ibfetors. 

he  begins  to  find  that  one  book  effaces  another. 
The  methods,  the  order,  the  proportions  of  one 
writer  do  not  agree  with  those  of  the  next; 
and  the  knowledge  of  men  and  events  so  labo- 
riously acquired  begins  to  dissolve  in  the  very 
multiplicity  of  facts.  This  is  the  time  for  the 
historical  student  to  make  up  some  sort  of 
written  topical  outline  of  his  subject.  He  now 
knows  not  only  what  is  important  and  what  is 
accidental,  but  he  has  also  in  his  mind  a  theory 
of  how  facts  and  events  fit  together.  He  is  in  the 
position  of  the  architect  who  has  decided  what 
he  wishes  to  place  on  each  floor  of  his  build- 
ing ;  the  next  step  is  to  draw  in  the  partitions 
so  as  to  divide  off  each  enclosure  from  its 
neighbor.  There  is  but  one  way  in  which  a 
large  amount  of  historical  knowledge  may  be 
co-ordinated,  and  that  is  by  keeping  a  sort  of 
table  of  contents  of  the  whole  subject  in  one's 
head  and  arranging  one's  material  in  that  or- 
der. If  such  a  system  is  adopted,  each  new 
important  fact  fits  into  its  place  as  it  comes ; 
and  no  matter  how  different  the  mode  of  treat- 
ment by  a  new  book,  the  mind  sifts  out  of  it 
what  is  unfamiliar  and  assorts  it  according  to 
its  own  system.  Hence  some  kind  of  written 
topical  arrangement  is  necessary,  as  one  pro- 
ceeds from  book  to  book. 

Of  course  much  may  be  done  by  subdivision 
of  labor;  in  a  class  of  bright  people,  all  study- 


^aFitng  an  ©utllne.  87 

ing  the  same  general  subject  together,  one  per- 
son may  take  up  one  phase  of  the  subject,  and 
another  a  different  phase.  For  instance,  on  the 
French  Revolution  the  first  may  take  the  rev- 
olutionary statesmen  ;  a  second,  the  Conven- 
tion ;  a  third,  the  army  ;  a  fourth,  the  navy  ; 
and  still  another,  the  revolutionary  societies. 
This  means  that  an  assignment  is  to  be  made 
as  soon  as  all  the  co-workers  have  the  general 
period  in  their  minds  ;  then  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  each  member  of  the  class  to  use  all  the 
available  material  upon  his  topic,  and,  so  to 
speak,  to  sub-analyze  that  material  until  it  be- 
comes clear  to  him. 

Long  before  the  work  has  reached  this  stage, 
however,  the  necessity  of  taking  written  notes 
of  some  kind  will  become  apparent.  A  very 
eminent  American  historian  is  accustomed  to 
take  his  notes  in  a  note-book  just  as  they  come. 
When  the  note-book  is  filled,  he  indexes  it 
and  begins  a  new  one ;  when  a  sufficient  num- 
ber accumulate  he  indexes  them  all ;  and  at 
last  account  he  had  more  than  eight  hundred 
such  note-books  in  his  collection.  His  is,  after 
all,  a  cumbersome  system  ;  it  is  quite  as  easy 
to  take  notes  upon  the  most  complicated  sub- 
ject in  such  a  form  that  they  will  index  them- 
selves. Suppose  that  this  eminent  author  in 
collecting  material  for  his  next  volume — let  us 
say  on  the  War  of  18 12 — should  use  separate 


S8  ibow  to  StuOis  1bf0tors, 

half-sheets  of  paper  of  uniform  size  and  ruling. 
Upon  the  first  half-sheet  he  notes  an  account 
of  Hull's  surrender,  upon  the  second  of  Com- 
mander Rogers's  first  cruise,  upon  the  next  of 
the  departure  of  Pinkney  from  England.  Thus 
he  goes  on  taking  a  fresh  sheet  for  every  fresh 
topic  until  he  finally  strikes  a  second  reference 
upon  Hull's  surrender;  the  note  on  this  point 
may  be  put  upon  the  original  sheet  for  that 
topic  ;  and  thus  the  recurring  accounts  will 
each  fall  into  their  logical  place,  where  they 
may  be  compared.  When  one  half -sheet  is 
full  another  may  be  begun  ;  when  a  sufficient 
number  of  half-sheets  have  accumulated  to 
make  it  worth  while  to  keep  them  separate, 
they  may  be  laid  together  loosely  within  a 
whole  sheet  of  the  same  size,  upon  the  outside 
of  which  the  general  subject  is  stated.  With  a 
little  practice  it  is  not  difficult  when  one  meets 
a  subject  to  find  the  sheet  upon  which  that 
subject  had  previously  been  noted.  As  topics 
accumulate,  a  subdivision  of  each  will  suggest 
itself,  and  the  sheets  may  be  sorted  and  stowed 
away  accordingly.  Thus  in  the  end  the  stu- 
dent has  a  bundle,  not  of  disorganized  memo- 
randa but  of  consecutive  material.  It  is  almost 
a  book  in  itself ;  it  is  divided  into  chapters,  sec- 
tions, and  even  paragraphs ;  and  when  the 
material  for  any  literary  work  is  collected  the 
work  is  already  half  done. 


1Plote*ta?ifn9  mt>  Sources*  89 

The  question  of  note-taking  is  perplexing  at 
the  best.  Students  usually  take  too  many. 
They  copy  out  long,  exact  quotations  from 
books  which  are  perfectly  accessible,  and 
which  they  could  reach  a  second  time  if  neces- 
sary. They  do  not  know  how  to  digest  the 
author's  statements  and  to  reduce  them  to  a 
brief  form.  If  you  are  trying  to  get  simply  a 
good  general  idea  of  a  period  from  the  use  of  a 
small  number  of  works,  take  notes  in  very  brief 
form,  with  a  view  simply  to  comparing  the 
statements  and  opinions  of  one  writer  with 
those  of  another,  and  at  the  same  time  of  so 
arranging  your  notes  that  you  may  have  a 
general  view  of  the  subject. 

Shall  the  student  use  sources  ?  Yes,  if  he  has 
sources  and  has  judgment.  One  may  often  get 
a  more  vivid  and  exact  picture  of  an  epoch  by 
reading  a  few  extracts  from  contemporaries  than 
by  going  over  a  series  of  later  writers.  After 
one  has  digested  a  brief  account  of  the  Puritan 
Revolution  and  then  has  gone  through  Gardi- 
ner's careful  and  scholarly  treatise,  one  would 
better  read  some  of  Oliver  Cromwell's  letters,  a 
poem  of  Milton's,  and  Sir  Harry  Vane's  opin- 
ions on  government.  It  is  very  easy  to  over- 
do the  comparison  of  standard  writers  ;  but  no 
historical  study  is  complete  without  the  ex- 
perience and  flavor  of  original  material  which 
come  from  using  sources ;  and  no  ordinary  stu- 


90  1bow  to  StuDi2  Ibietox^. 

dent  need  expect  to  study  such  material  care- 
fully  enough  to  disagree  seriously  with  his- 
torians like  Gardiner,  who  have  used  all  avail- 
able sources. 

In  a  word,  the  object  of  the  historical  stu- 
dent is  to  bring  before  his  mind  a  picture  of 
the  main  events  and  the  spirit  of  the  times 
which  he  studies.  The  first  step  is  to  get  a 
general  view  from  a  brief  book;  the  second 
step  is  to  enlarge  it  from  more  elaborate  works, 
reading  more  than  one,  and  to  use  some  system 
of  written  notes  logically  arranged ;  the  final 
step  is  to  read  some  of  the  contemporary 
writers.  Having  done  these  three  things  care- 
fully, the  historical  student  carries  away  an 
impression  of  his  period  which  will  never  be 
effaced. 


V. 

t)ow  to  Ueacb  iblstotg  in  Secon&ats  Scboola* 


It  is  not  many  years  since  the  question,  how- 
is  history  taught  in  the  United  States  ?  could 
be  answered  in  only  one  of  two  brief  ways ;  it 
was  not  taught  at  all ;  or  it  was  taught  perfunc- 
torily from  single  text-books.  A  certain  quan- 
tum of  knowledge  of  affairs  in  the  ancient  world 
was  imbibed  by  students  of  the  classics ;  some 
people,  old  and  young,  read  history  for  the 
love  of  it ;  an  acquaintance  with  the  past  was 
thought  desirable  for  the  statesman ;  only  here 
and  there  a  choice  spirit  taught  his  pupils,  in 
school  or  college,  what  history  actually  meant. 
But  the  methods  common,  even  in  the  most 
advanced  classes,  are  illustrated  by  an  experi- 
ence which  a  present  professor  of  history  in 
Harvard  University  enjoys  telling.  At  his 
first  recitation  in  history  the  tutor  gave  him 
his  cue :  "  *  The  fleet  of  Callicratidas  was  now 
double  that  of  Conon* — proceed,  sir." 

The  attempt  to  make  history  interesting  to, 
and  comprehensible  to,  the  ordinary  reader 
(90 


9^  ZcachitxQ  of  Iblator^, 

may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  America  with 
George  Bancroft's  work ;  the  study  of  history 
has  been  greatly  stimulated  since  the  Civil 
War,  by  the  eager  interest  of  the  nation  in  its 
own  life ;  and  it  has  been  made  possible  by  the 
multiplication  of  text-books  and  elaborate  his- 
tories. No  good  college  now  graduates  any 
student  without  some  attempt  to  teach  him 
history;  a  great  number  of  the  secondary 
schools  have  taken. up  the  subject;  and  it  be- 
gins to  appear  even  in  the  primary  schools. 
Yet  the  precise  end  in  view  in  most  places  is 
still  indistinct;  the  methods  are  frequently 
crude  and  tentative;  and  the  equipment  is 
poor.  The  object  of  this  essay  is  therefore  to 
examine  and  compare  the  systems  of  a  number 
of  schools,  so  as  to  discover  what  is  actually 
going  on.  Proceeding  from  the  information 
thus  acquired,  it  might  then  be  possible  to 
suggest  some  directions  in  which  the  instruc- 
tion in  history  may  tend,  and  some  methods 
which  may  be  helpful. 

Only  the  secondary  schools  will  be  consid- 
ered: The  work  of  the  colleges  has  been 
examined,  and  results  published,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education ; 
while  the  primary  schools  are  too  numerous 
and  the  work  too  little  systematized  as  yet  to 
allow  much  useful  discussion.  The  point  of 
view  of  the  writer  is  that  of  one  who  knows  the 


MaBiB  of  tbe  lEssais*  93 

secondary  schools  in  some  degree  by  their 
effects ;  who  sees  that  the  graduates  of  the  fit- 
ting schools  are  often  badly  prepared  or  unpre- 
pared in  history  ;  and  who  would  like  to  receive 
them  into  his  classes  with  some  clear  element- 
ary knowledge,  with  good  habits  of  reading, 
and  with  practice  in  finding  things  out  for 
themselves.  Some  important  elements  in  the 
problem  require  a  more  intimate  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  the  schools,  their  needs,  and 
their  limitations. 

The  immediate  sources  of  information  are  the 
answers  received  from  about  ninety  principals 
or  teachers  of  high  and  preparatory  schools ; 
and  also  a  hundred  and  seventy-five  statements 
made  by  students  of  history  in  college.  The 
schools  are  representative  because  they  are 
scattered  over  the  United  States,  and  because 
they  are  of  every  degree  of  importance ;  but  it 
is  presumable  that  a  large  number  of  those  who 
failed  to  answer  had  little  to  tell,  and  that  the 
amount  and  quality  of  instruction  in  history 
described  in  these  reports  is  much  above  the 
average.  In  the  same  way  the  circular  to  stu- 
dents was  laid  only  before  those  who  had  suffi- 
cient interest  in  the  subject  to  elect  a  course  in 
history  in  college. 

Three-fourths  of  the  schools  reporting,  con- 
fine their  instruction  in  history  to  a  period 
ranging  from   one  to  two  years;  a  very  few 


94  G:eacb(n(}  of  Ibietot^. 

carry  it  on  during  four,  five,  or  even  six  years. 
The  variation  in  the  number  of  hours  of  weekly 
exercises  has  no  special  significance ;  the  com- 
mon practice  is,  three,  four,  or  five  hours  or 
"periods."  The  combination  of  years  and 
hours  gives,  however,  widely  varying  results. 
The  least  total  is  forty  exercises ;  the  greatest 
total,  eight  hundred  ;  as  nearly  as  an  average 
can  be  determined,  it  is  about  two  hundred  and 
forty  hours,  or  three  hours  a  week  for  two 
years. 

Through  the  circular  the  attempt  was  made 
to  discover  the  proportion  of  time  spent  upon 
ancient,  modern,  and  American  periods.  The 
results  show  a  great  variety  of  practice.  An- 
cient history  is  taught  in  some  form  in  nearly 
every  school,  usually  as  a  part  of  the  prepara- 
tion for  college ;  on  the  average  it  takes  up 
one-third  of  the  time  devoted  to  history.  A 
little  more  attention,  on  the  whole,  is  given  to 
modern  European  history.  American  history  is 
omitted  entirely  in  half  the  schools,  and,  where 
taught,  occupies  less  that  half  the  time  allotted 
to  history.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  hours 
devoted  to  history  vary  from  one-third  to  one- 
twentieth  of  the  school  recitation  hours ;  the 
average  in  the  schools  reporting  would  seem  to 
be  about  one-tenth. 

More  important  than  these  questions  of  time 
and  division  is  the  arrangement  of  work  and 


xrime  anD  Brrangement  95 

the  order  of  courses.     Here  are  two  schedules ; 
the  first  is  that  of  a  large  city  high-school : 

"First  Year:  i.  Lectures  on  current  ques- 
tions— one  hour  per  week  throughout  the  entire 
school  year. 

2.  Historical  Biography.  )     Two  hours  per 

3.  Greek  History.  >  week  throughout 

4.  Roman  History*  )  the  entire  year. 

"  Second  Year :  History  of  England— four 
hours  per  week  throughout  one-half  of  the 
school  year. 

"  Third  Year :  General  European  History 
— four  hours  per  week  throughout  the  entire 
school  year." 

In  the  high  school  of  a  New  England  city 
of  50,000  people  the  following  excellent  course 
is  prescribed  : 

"  In  his  first  year  the  pupil  is  obliged  to  have 
Ancient  History  five  hours  per  week  for  the 
school  year  of  forty  weeks. 

"  In  his  second  year  he  may  have  Mediaeval 
History  and  that  of  the  United  States  for  the 
same  time,  viz. :  five  hours  a  week  for  forty 
weeks.  Mediaeval  for  first  half ;  United  States 
second  half  of  year. 

In  his  third  year  his  option  is  English  his- 
tory just  as  above. 

"  In  his  fourth,  if  in  the  college  course,  he 
must  take  Greek  and  Roman  History  as  be- 
fore." 

Several  different  aims  usually  influence  the 
minds  of  teachers  of  history;  to  teach  the  pupil 


9^  treacbing  of  Ibfetor^, 

to  know  something ;  to  teach  the  pupil  to 
think  ;  and  to  enable  the  pupil  to  pass  the  en- 
trance examination  of  some  college.  Public 
sentiment  and  many  Boards  of  Education  de- 
mand facts;  and  parents  expect  "a  good  fit." 
It  is  therefore  very  encouraging  to  find  so 
clear  a  perception  of  the  essential  in  history  as 
is  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  the  an- 
swer of  the  Principal  of  the  high-school  in  a 
large  Western  city  : 

*'  In  general  history  the  attempt  is  made  to 
give  the  pupil  some  notion  of  the  '  flow'  of  his- 
tory, its  '  unity  *  as  well  as  diversity,  to  bring 
out  correspondences  in  different  countries  and 
times,  and  to  knit  the  whole  firmly  together  by 
constant  cross-references  and  review  questions. 
Special  attention  is  directed  to  the  experiences 
of  older  nations  on  questions  of  present  im- 
portance in  this  country.  In  examining  con- 
flicting views  the  pupil  is  encouraged  in  the 
attempt  to  place  himself  for  the  time  being  in 
the  position  of  the  author  discussed.  In  these 
classes  the  things  mostly  aimed  at  are  local 
color,  perspective,  breadth  of  view." 

An  examination  of  the  returns  show  that  few 
schools  have  the  facilities,  the  teachers,'  or  the 
spirit  for  very  much  more  than  is  required  by 
the  demands  of  the  colleges.  "  The  present 
temptation,"  says  one  principal,  "  is  to  *  read 
up '  on  history,  simply  because  it  admits  of  be- 
ing done.    No  amount  of  that  carries  a  boy 


"Cleual  /IBetbobs*  97 

through  Quadratics  or  Homer,"  and  he  com- 
plains bitterly  of  "  the  coat  of  many  colors  that 
the  New  England  colleges  force  us  to  draw 
on. 

Whatever  the  aim  of  a  school,  it  is  of  little  1 
importance  unless  it  is  aided  by  adequate  meth-  j 
ods;  and   there  are  discernible  three  distinct    1 
types  of   instruction :  the  lecture  system  ;  the    ' 
text-book    system ;    and    the    topical    system. 
The  first  may  be  quietly  passed  over ;  for  not 
more  than  one-ninth  of  the  schools  have  regu-    ^ 
lar    required    lectures,   and    only   exceptional 
teachers  with  unusual  pupils  can  make  it  prof- 
itable in  secondary  grades.  (In   others  there 
are  **  supplementary  talks  ;  "  or,  to  take  a  stu- 
dent's   definition :  "  the    teacher  told  stories."^ 
The  text-book  method  is  by  far  the  most  fre-  ^ 
quent.     In  fully  half  the  cases  no  other  instruc- 
tion is  attempted  ;  only  five  out  of  a  hundred 
and  seventy-five   students   report  that  it  was 
never  used  where  they  were  prepared  for  col- 
lege.    In   some   schools,  however,  where   the 
topical  method  is  not  employed,  there  are  ad-   ^ 
juncts  to  the  recitation,  designed  to  make  the 
exercises  more  interesting.     Such   are   "  oral 
reviews,"  reports  of  the  news  of  the  day,  dis- 
cussions, or  the  reading  of  selections  in  class. 

Since  text-books  are  the  basis  of  the  work, 
let  us  look  into  the  books.|    They  are  almost 
^s  numerous  as  teachers.    In  the  ninety  schools 
7 


9^  XLcachiWQ  of  Ibistorg. 

reporting,  seventy-six  different  works  are  used. 

I   There  are  thirteen  text-books  on  general  his- 

I   tory,  eighteen  on  ancient  history,  nine  on  the 

f    mediaeval  and   modern    periods,   eighteen   on 

England,  and  thirteen  on  the  United  States. 

Only  fourteen  of  the  books  in  the  list  are  used 

by  more  than  four  schools  each. 

Perhaps  a  fourth  of  the  reporting  schools 
have  put  into  operation  some  form  of  topical 
recitation ;  it  has  taken  root  but  slowly,  since 
a  hundred  and  forty-six  students  out  of  a  hun- 
dred and  sixty-seven  had  never  experienced  it. 
The  general  method  is  well  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  work  in  the  high- 
school  of  a  small  city  in  New  York  : 

"  In  the  General  History  classes  the  follow- 
ing plan  has  been  tried  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults : 

"  On  Wednesday  the  lesson  in  the  text-book 
for  the  entire  week  is  given.     Subjects  are  se- 
\     lected,  covering  the  week's  work,  and  one  as- 
\     signed  to  each  pupil.     During  the  week  any 
'     questions   asked   by  pupils   are  noted,  and   to 
these  the  teacher  adds  any  that  may  occur  to 
him.     In  this  way  quite  a  list  of  '  curious  que- 
ries '  will  be  made  each  week.     Monday,  the 
topics  which  were  assigned  the  previous  Wed- 
nesday are  discussed  by  the  pupils^  each  per- 
son being  usually  allowed  all  the  time  he  or 
she  chooses  to  take.     Sometimes,  however,  a 
*  one  minute  '  or  *  two  minutes  *  address  is  re- 
quired. 


ZciWboo\{6  an&  pro^tammeg.  99 

"  Tuesday,  teacher  and  pupils  bring  selec- 
tions bearing  upon  topics  of  the  week,  all  extra 
reading  being  introduced  on  that  day. 

"  Wednesday  the  time  is  devoted  entirely  to 
the  text-book — pupils  are  expected  to  be  thor- 
oughly prepared  on  that  portion  assigned  the 
previous  Wednesday. 

"  Thursday  the  questions  collected  during 
the  week  are  answered  as  far  as  pupils  have 
been  able  to  look  up  answers.  All  are  anxious 
to  have  as  many  as  possible  and  no  compulsion 
is  necessary.  If  no  pupil  has  found  answers  to 
one  or  more  than  one  of  the  questions,  the 
teacher  makes  some  suggestion  as  to  sources 
of  information,  and  questions  are  left  for  the 
next  Thursday.  Current  events  are  also  dis- 
cussed on  this  day. 

**  Friday  is  the  pupil's  day,  and  each  one  pre- 
pares a  list  of  ten  questions  that  he  considers 
a  fair  test  for  members  of  the  class.  (Pupils 
may  select  questions  from  any  portion  of  his- 
tory that  has  been  studied  by  the  class.)  As 
the  teacher  designates  two  pupils,  they  rise 
and  one  asks  his  questions  of  the  other,  stating 
at  the  close  what  per  cent,  have  been  correctly 
answered.  Two  other  pupils  are  then  named 
and  the  same  course  pursued." 

The  advantage  of  the  topical  method  is 
twofold ;  it  trains  the  student  to  investigate 
and  to  think ;  and  it  encourages  good  habits  of 
reading.  The  efficiency  of  the  system  depends 
upon  the  abundance  and  accessibility  of  books. 
Not  many  schools  can  equal  the  library  of 
eighteen  thousand  volumes  in  a  Central  New 


I/' 


loo  tTeacbfn^  ot  1bl0tor^. 

York  high-school ;  and  few  happy  principals 
"  can  think  of  no  necessary  book  wanting ; " 
still,  about  one-third  of  them  appear  to  have 
creditable  collections  of  books  within  their  own 
walls ;  more  than  another  third  possess  a  few 
standard  encyclopaedias  and  histories.  Eight 
schools  depend  wholly  on  public  libraries,  and 
others  makes  those  libraries  add  to  their  own 
scantier  resources.  At  a  few  places  there  is  a 
small  circulating  library,  made  up  by  purchase 
or  by  contribution. 

On  the  question  how  faithfully  the  books  of 

^  reference  are  employed,  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  between  teachers  and  students.  Fifty 
schools  out  of  ninety  report  a  good  use ;  only 
twenty-seven  students  out  of  a  hundred  and 
sixty-nine  had  noticed  that  in  their  schools  the 
books  were  well  used ;  twice  as  many  had  no- 
ticed the  contrary  ;  one  had  used  them  "  only 
for  amusement,"  and  eighty-three  had  had 
either  no  books  or  no  impressions.  It  appears 
proven  that  the  reference  libraries  of  the 
schools  are  in  a  great  many  cases  too  small  or 
too    uninteresting,    or    that     pupils     are    not 

__  properly  trained  in  their  use. 

Home  reading  in  many  cases  doubtless  sup- 
plies the  lack.  The  taste  for  historical  reading 
is  easily  implanted  in  the  minds  of  thoughtful 
young  people;  about  half  the  students  who 
made  out  a   statement  had  read  at  least  one 


"ee 


%- 


XXse  of  moof{e.<^^°A^s>-^  - 


standard  history.  The  favorites  a?5 — Pfes-  \ 
cott,  Macaulay,  Irving,  Green,  Bancroft,  and —  ) 
as  the  writer  regrets  to  record — Abbott.  About 
a  sixth  have  read  juvenile  histories,  historical 
novels,  and  various  other  books ;  nearly  a 
third  appear  to  have  read,  or  at  least  to  have 
remembered,  absolutely  nothing  outside  of 
their  text-books.  The  proportion  of  readers  is 
the  more  remarkable,  because  only  about  a 
sixth  of  the  whole  report  that  outside  reading 
was  required  in  their  school. 

In  addition  to  oral  recitations  and  the  prep- 
aration of  topics,  about  one-third  of  the  /^ 
teachers  require  written  exercises.  In  class, 
the  usual  form  is  the  preparation  of  written 
reviews,  either  on  the  lesson  or  on  a  subject  ,. 
studied  outside.  Occasionally  teachers  expect 
notes  to  be  taken.  Out  of  class,  pupils  prepare 
abstracts  of  paragraphs  or  of  specified  chap- 
ters ;  they  write  theses ;  they  arrange  gene- 
alogical tables ;  they  make  out  outlines,  sum- 
maries, and  analyses.  Two  schools  report  de- 
bates as  part  of  their  exercises  ;  and  one  has 
established  a  prize  examination  on  the  knowl- 
edge of  American  history  gained  by  outside 
study. 

Geography,  the   twin  sister  of   history,  has 
as  yet  but  a  cold  reception   in  the   historical 
family.     Only  about  half  the  schools  make  it     f  _ 
what  it  should  be — an  essential   and  integral 


I02  ZctichirxQ  of  Ibistorg, 

part  of  the  study  of  every  period.  To  be  sure 
nearly  half  the  pupils  have  had  some  geography ; 
but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they  have 
really  studied  anything  beyond  the  classical 
atlas.  A  few  enthusiastic  teachers  begin  the 
study  of  each  country  with  a  description  of  its 
geography,  or  even  adopt  helpful  devices  such 
as  this : 

"  Attention  is  called  to  geography  by  ques- 
tions as  to  location  of  places  mentioned  in 
the  lesson.  Failure  is  met  by  drawing  a  map 
of  the  State  containing  the  point  in  question, 
locating  the  special  place,  and  several  others. 
Pupils  are  required  to  draw  State  groups — 
for  instance,  the  Massachusetts  Group.  This 
means  to  draw  Massachusetts,  with  all  the 
adjoining  States,  in  one  group,  so  as  to  learn 
its  relative  position,  and  to  draw  Massachusetts, 
the  central  State,  in  detail — the  capital,  chief 
places  of  note — mountains,  rivers,  in  short, 
anything  the  teacher  sees  fit  to  call  for.  Draw- 
ing on  the  blackboard  is  required  in  some 
cases." 

A  fair  proportion  of  schools  have  an  ap- 
paratus of  wall  maps  and  atlases  ;  the  more 
'^  energetic  teachers  oblige  pupils  to  locate 
places  and  to  trace  movements.  Perhaps  one- 
fourth  of  the  schools  require  map-drawing  of 
some  sort,  although  the  greater  part  of  it  is 
probably  topographical  rather  than  historical. 
A  few  use  blank  outlines,  to  be  filled  in  by  the 


Distorfcal  0cograpbg. 


103 


pupil ;  or  ask  him  to  draw  maps  from  memory 
upon  the  board.  To  judge  from  personal  ex- 
perience with  many  undergraduate  students, 
the  two  things  which  the  candidate  for  en- 
trance to  college  does  not  know  are  :  how  to 
add  figures ;  and  how  to  remember  or  represent 
geographical  facts.  Historical  geography  is 
still  almost  undeveloped  in  the  fitting  schools. 
Here  the  doctrinaire  may  justly  criticise  the 
practical  teacher,  even  without  knowing  all  his 
difficulties.  Whether  the  pupil  is  being  pre- 
pared for  college  or  for  business  or  for  home 
life,  his  education  is  of  little  value  if  it  leaves 
no  definite  impression  upon  his  mind.  The 
colleges  do  not  expect  that  those  who  come  to 
them  shall  have  a  wide  historical  training,  or 
shall  remember  a  great  many  facts  ;  they  have 
a  right  to  expect  that  certain  general  historical 
principles  may  be  taken  for  granted.  One  of 
the  questions  asked  of  the  students  was  :  "  Did 
your  previous  study  of  history  help  you  to  un- 
derstand better  your  college  courses?"  The 
answers  may  be  tabulated  as  follows : 


**  Yes,  decidedly,"     .        •        .        .  7 

"  Very  much," 10 

"Much," 2 

"Yes," 42 

"Partially,"       .....  12 

"  In  general  training,"      ...  4 
"  In  general  knowledge  from  reading,"      7 


104  Zcnching  of  fbietot^* 

"  Somewhat,"     . 

"  Hope  so,"  or  "  think  so,'* 

"Not  much,"     . 

"  Very  little,"    . 

"No,"  .... 

"Not  a  bit,"      . 


14 
4 
7 

II 

37 
13 


Total, 170 

Let  us  sum  up  the  evidence  from  the  state- 
ments of  teachers  and  graduates  of  the  fitting 
schools.  In  many  schools  little  or  no  history 
is  taught ;  where  taught,  the  best  methods  are 
not  always  employed ;  where  good  methods 
prevail  there  is  often  a  lack  of  books  and  ap- 
paratus ;  where  there  are  the  best  facilities  pu- 
pils sometimes  neglect  them. 

If  the  previous  criticism  be  well  founded, 
historical  instruction  in  the  secondary  school 
is  not  in  a  satisfactory  state ;  pupils  who  are 
sent  to  college  come  indifferently  prepared, 
and  those  whose  education  ends  with  the  high- 
school  are  not  well  grounded  in  the  elements 
of  history.  The  defects  are  in  part  beyond 
the  power  of  teachers,  principals,  or  even 
school  boards.  Suitable  text-books  are  lack- 
Tng ;  trained  teachers  are  not  to  be  had,  or  are 
overworked  ;  there  are  no  funds  for  additional 
instruction,  or  for  libraries  and  apparatus. 
Other  defects  are  simply  those  of  arrange- 
ment, and  the  efficiency  of  the  work  may  be 


Ipresent  /iBetboDs  Cr(t(c(0e&.  105 

increased  by  a  little  thought  on  the  part  of 
the  principals.  A  more  serious  trouble  is,  in 
many  cases,  a  wrong  aim  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher ;  he  does  less  than  he  might  do  with 
the  material  and  means  in  his  hands.  The  at- 
tempt will,  therefore,  be  made  to  point  out 
some  methods  which  require  no  considerable  \ 
increase  of  expense,  and  which  may  be  ap-  ] 
plied  by  any  competent  teacher  in  any  good 
school. 

In  general,  the  schools  give  less  time  to  his-  \ 
tory  than  its  importance  justifies.  If  the  work 
be  undertaken  at  all,  pupils  ought  to  be  sent  out 
with  a  permanent  impression  of  the  history  of 
at  least  one  country,  and  with  some  facility  in 
finding  things  out  for  themselves.  The  re- 
quirements of  the  colleges  are  certainly  no 
criterion  of  what  ought  to  be  taught.  Three 
hours  a  week,  throughout  the  four  years'  sec- 
ondary course,  is  perhaps  as  much  as  can  be 
expected,  and  is  sufficient  for  a  thorough  and 
practical  grounding  in  history. 

How  to  divide  the  allotted  time  among  the 
various  periods  and  countries  is  a  perplexing 
question.  Ancient  and  mediaeval  history  have 
a  peculiar  value,  in  that  they  present  to  the 
mind  the  workings  of  human  nature  under  cir- 
cumstances unlike  our  own ;  there  is  a  further 
practical  advantage  in  the  greater  abundance 
of  good  text-books.    On  the  other  hand,  there 


io6  Ucacbim  ot  Ibistorg, 

is  a  stimulus  in  the  close  connection  of  modern 
history  with  present  events.  If  a  great  deal  of 
time  be  devoted  to  the  subject,  ancient,  med- 
iaeval, modern  European,  English,  and  Ameri- 
can history  may  each  be  taken  up  separately. 
Where  the  time  is  limited,  it  is  a  clear  waste  to 
devote  it  to  small  "  universal "  histories,  unless 
accompanied  by  enlarging  comment.  It  is  far 
better  to  study  in  a  larger  way  the  history  of 
one  or  two  countries :  the  United  States  and 
England  are  first  in  importance  to  Americans ; 
then  come  Greece,  Germany,  France,  Rome. 

There  are  two  well-known  systems  of  ar- 
rangement of  historical  courses :  the  first  is 
that  of  chronological  succession,  beginning 
with  the  most  remote  and  ending  with  the 
most  recent ;  the  second  is  the  German 
method  of  working  from  within  outward ; 
the  child  begins  with  his  own  town  or  city, 
then  studies  his  district,  then  his  State,  then 
Germany,  and  perhaps  finally  arrives  at  the 
asteroids  and  the  United  States.  The  difficulty 
with  the  latter  method  is  the  danger  that  the 
pupil  will  leave  off  before  he  has  learned  how 
much  greater  is  the  world  than  his  horizon; 
and  in  this  country  there  are  few  good  ele- 
mentary books  on  local  history.  To  begin 
with  ancient  history,  on  the  other  hand,  means 
that  a  certain  number  of  pupils  never  will 
reach  the  history  of  their  own  country.     Per- 


BclcctinQ  Subjects.  107 

haps  the  best  principle  is  to  begin  with  that  pe- 
riod which  is  most  likely  to  be  interesting  and 
important,  and  then  to  follow  immediately  with 
the  history  of  some  country  remote  from  the 
pupil's  ken.  In  most  cases  the  history  of  Eng- 
land or  the  United  States  is  the  best  intro- 
duction. Where  literature  or  art  is  systemat- 
ically studied,  a  double  interest  may  be  created 
by  making  these  studies  run  parallel  with  the 
history. 

Let  us  now  pass  to  the  every-day  work  of 
the  class-room.  In  all  historical  teaching  the 
first  principle  to  fix  in  the  mind  of  pupil  and  \ 
teacher  is  the  importance  of  accurately  estab-  * 
lished  facts :  and  the  second  principle  is  the 
worthlessness  of  detached  incidents.  From  the 
beginning,  it  should  be  understood  that  a 
knowledge  of  facts  is  not  a  knowledge  of  his- 
tory ;  that  the  text-book  simply  selects  and 
groups  a  very  small  number  of  actual  historical 
events,  and  that  the  essential  thing  is  to  know 
how  facts  are  related,  and  what  they  mean 
when  viewed  together.  There  are,  therefore, 
several  co-related  aims  which  the  teacher  must 
keep  constantly  in  mind.  He  must  teach  facts ; 
and  for  that  purpose  the  text-book  and  recita- 
tion system  is  best  adapted.  He  must  show 
the  relations  between  them;  and  lectures  and 
talks  will  bring  out  those  relations.  He  must 
accustom  the  pupil  to  assemble  material  for 


io8  tTcacbins  of  Iblstori^, 

himself  and  to  test  it;  the  topical  method  af- 
fords the  necessary  training.  He  must  lead 
the  student  to  think  and  judge  a  little  for  him- 
self ;  the  preparation  of  topics  and  outside 
reading  will  induce  some  degree  of  such  inde- 
pendent thought. 

The  recitation  system  requires  for  its  success 
a  good  text-book.  The  old-fashioned  "  school 
history,"  with  its  mass  of  unimportant  detail, 
overloaded  with  military  history,  has  rather 
given  place  to  new  books  of  two  types.  On 
the  one  hand  we  have  the  various  "  Young 
Folks'  Histories,"  in  which  the  "  story  "  is  de- 
veloped. On  the  other  hand  is  the  class  of 
excellent  school  histories  which  include  the 
social  and  economic  side  as  well  as  the  politi- 
cal. The  topical  method  has  its  special  helps 
in  the  "  Hand-books,"  "  Pathfinders,"  "  Topics 
and  References,"  "  Guides,"  and  ''  Outlines," 
just  now  coming  forward.  For  pupils  who  are 
likely  to  go  farther,  the  "  story  "  books  are  best 
for  a  beginning ;  for  those  who  have  but  the 
one  opportunity  a  more  compendious  book 
is  desirable.  In  every  case  good  and  accurate 
maps  are  much  more  serviceable  than  illustra- 
tions, and  the  pictures  should  represent  only 
real  things  and  persons.  The  value  of  a  book 
is  much  increased  if  it  contain  good  review 
questions,  especially  if  they  group  into  new 
combinations  the  facts  that  have  been  acquired. 


IRecitatfons.  109 


What  is  learned  from  the  text-book  ought  in 
most  cases  to  be  confirmed  in  recitations,  less 
as  a  test  of  faithfulness  than  as  a  supplement. 
The  actual  memorizing  should  be  confined  as 
narrowly  as  possible.  A  few  things  must  be 
learned  by  heart  and  when  forgotten  learned 
again,  to  serve  as  a  framework  about  which 
to  group  one's  knowledge ;  without  knowing 
the  succession  of  dynasties,  or  of  sovereigns, 
or  of  presidents,  or  the  dates  of  the  great  con- 
stitutional events,  the  pupil's  stock  of  informa- 
tion will  have  no  more  form  than  a  jelly-fish. 
But  these  few  necessary  facts  ought  to  be 
clearly  defined  as  the  sole  memorizing  ex- 
pected. The  story  must  be  told  in  the  pupil's 
own  words.  His  interest  may  be  stimulated 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  Actual  discussion  or 
quiz  is  hardly  to  be  expected  from  those  who 
have  only  the  foundation  of  the  text-book,  but 
the  utmost  freedom  of  questions  should  be 
encouraged.  Photographs  and  pictures  may 
be  brought  in.  The  report  on  the  news  of  the 
day,  common  in  some  city  schools,  may  often 
be  made  to  hinge  upon  the  lesson  in  hand. 
The  reading  of  illustrative  extracts,  of  other 
accounts  of  the  same  affair,  or  of  a  succeeding 
lesson,  will  add  interest.  In  a  word,  the  recita- 
tion ought  to  give  the  pupil  something  that 
does  not  appear  in  the  book. 

Nor  should  the  teacher  be  content  with  di- 


iio  Zc^cbiWQ  ot  1bi6torg, 

rection.  It  is  his  special  duty  to  bring  out  the 
cause  and  effect  of  events  :  and  it  must  be  done 
by  his  words  and  not  by  the  pupil's.  The  prep- 
aration is  a  severe  task  for  a  hard-worked 
teacher ;  but  if  he  does  no  more  than  to  read 
one  or  two  extended  accounts  of  the  ground  of 
the  day's  lesson,  he  will  have  a  fund  of  com- 
ment and  illustration.  Perhaps  the  ideal  of 
teaching  would  be  to  make  the  text-book  only 
the  connection  and  groundwork  for  a  series  of 
simple  talks  with  quiz  and  discussion.  It  is 
possible  only  with  conscientious  students :  and 
the  necessary  control  of  the  note-books  adds  a 
great  deal  of  labor.  In  advanced  classes,  bright 
pupils  may  sometimes  be  trusted  under  careful 
direction  and  supervision  to  prepare  a  talk  for 
their  fellows.  A  very  happy  effect  may  often 
be  produced  by  introducing  some  outsider  into 
the  class  exercise,  or  at  another  hour,  who  shall 
give  a  prepared  lecture  on  some  subject  illus- 
trating the  field  of  study ;  in  any  town  large 
enough  to  sustain  a  good  high-school  may  al- 
ways be  found  intelligent  people  able  and  glad 
to  say  something  effective.  This  system  has 
been  admirably  marked  out  in  the  highly  suc- 
cessful Old  South  courses  of  lectures  for  young 
people,  given  in  Boston  every  summer  to  au- 
diences of  hundreds  of  children  and  older 
people.  The  important  thing  to  remember  in 
talking  or  lecturing  is  that  the  lecturer  ought 


Ibow  to  1Rou0e  ITntereat  m 

not  to  add  an  assortment  of  new  and  bewil^r^^gT 
ing  facts,  but  to  set  in  order  and  explain  tUfy 
principles  governing  those  already  acquiredP^ 


4^^ 


One  of  the  most  learned  historians  in  NeW^^q.  ^ 
England  is  accustomed  to  say  that  he  no  longer  ^^^^^ 
tries  to  remember  any  particular  fact,  but  only 
where  to  find  it  recorded.     American  schools 
and  even  American  colleges  have  been  slow  to 
recognize  that  the  ability  to  find  out  what  one 
wants  is  as  essential  a  part  of  historical  training 
as  the  ability  to  remember  facts  and  to  under- 
stand the  relations  between  them.     The  topical 
method  is  an  attempt  to  give   instruction  in 
research  ;    and  at  the  same  time  it  is  often  a      / 
superior  method  of  presenting  facts.     Its  ad-     / 
vantages  are  that  it  teaches  the  pupil  to  ex-     j 
amine  and  use  books;  it  throws  upon  him  an 
educating  responsibility  of  choice  ;  it  leads  him 
to  select  the  important  from  the  unimportant ; 
it  obliges  him  to  compare  and  collate  authori- 
ties ;   it  gives  him   the   pleasing  sense  of  dis- 
covery.    Nor  does  it  require  large  libraries,  or 
a  great  expenditure  of  the  teacher's  time. 

In  one  form,  the  topical  system  supersedes 
text-book  recitation ;  the  whole  field  is  divided 
into  successive  topics  which  are  prepared  by 
all  pupils  ;  and  the  recitation  is  held  on  the  sub- 
ject and  not  in  any  book.  But  these  themes 
may  also  be  used  as  adjuncts  or  occasional  exer- 
cises.    In  fact  the  great  advantage  of  the  sys- 


112  Xlcncblm  of  Ibiator^, 

tem  is  that  it  can  be  applied  by  each  teacher  to 
the  circumstances  of  his  own  school.  In  select- 
ing topics  care  should  be  taken  to  make  them 
cover  only  one  simple  subject :  questions  should 
be  avoided  about  which  little  definite  informa- 
tion is  to  be  had  ;  to  a  child's  mind  a  negative 
result  is  a  failure.  Biography  lends  itself 
easily  to  this  method  ;  any  number  of  subjects 
of  about  equal  difficulty  may  be  found,  and  it  is 
easier  to  secure  a  lucid,  well-arranged  report 
than  on  other  questions.  Where  the  topics  are 
numerous,  the  teacher  owes  it  to  his  pupils 
to  give  them  a  good  outfit  of  specific  direc- 
tions and  exact  references :  for  an  occasional 
theme  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  turn  a  pupil 
loose  into  a  library ;  but  where  he  is  expected 
to  learn  something  valuable  about  his  subject 
in  a  short  time,  he  must  not  be  discouraged  by 
the  mass  of  books :  he  must  have  his  clew. 

Where  the  topics  are  only  occasional  the  fol- 
lowing system  may  be  found  useful.  Let  the 
topics  be  given  out  in  groups ;  a  set  of  geograph- 
ical subjects ;  a  set  of  biographical  subjects  ; 
a  set  of  narratives  ;  a  set  of  military  subjects  ; 
and  so  on  ;  out  of  each  group,  set  for  each  pupil 
his  own  individual  topic.  When  the  group  is 
given  out,  a  circular  of  directions  may  be  issued 
or  put  on  the  board  meeting  the  questions  most 
likely  to  be  asked  and  the  difficulties  most 
likely  to  arise,  and  prescribing  a  form  in  which 


topical  jflBetbo&»  113 

the  answers  are  to  be  returned.  Pupils  should 
then  be  put  on  their  own  resources  :  as  their 
topics  are  all  different,  they  cannot  use  each 
other's  work ;  as  they  are  all  of  the  same  kind, 
a  few  books  will  suffice  for  their  sources,  and 
the  teacher  can  more  easily  control  the  work. 
Some  provision  should  be  made  for  giving  a 
little  help  to  those  who  have,  after  honest 
effort,  failed  to  find  authorities.  The  return  of 
the  work  in  the  precise  outward  form  required 
should  be  insisted  upon,  because  it  is  of  such 
vast  importance  to  be  able  to  put  information 
into  a  shape  useful  to  another  person  :  and  the 
labor  of  handling  the  papers  is  thus  greatly  re- 
duced. There  is  plenty  of  room  for  originality 
in  the  choice  of  books  and  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  facts.  Great  care  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  pupil  from  simply  repro- 
ducing what  he  finds  in  one  or  several  books. 
From  the  very  outset,  the  pupil  should  be 
taught  always  to  append  a  brief  bibliographical 
note,  setting  forth  the  sources  of  his  informa- 
tion and  giving  exact  references  to  volume  and 
page.  The  selection  of  the  best  papers  to  be 
read  in  class  may  be  a  reward  for  diligence  and 
especially  for  orderly  arrangement  and  clear 
statement.  With  classes  of  any  considerable 
size,  the  specific  references  should  include  sev- 
eral common  books  on  each  topic,  so  as  to 
make  sure  that  the  pupil  has  the  opportunity  of 
8 


114  treacbing  of  Ibfstor^. 

using  at  least  one.  Both  teacher  and  pupil 
will  find  useful  some  of  the  printed  topical  out- 
lines mentioned  in  the  bibliographical  note  at 
the  end  of  this  essay. 

The  topical  system,  and  good  teaching  of 
any  sort,  is  dependent  on  books  of  reference. 
Every  school  ought  to  have  a  library,  conven- 
ient, and  accessible  every  day  and  all  day.  It 
need  not  be  large  ;  in  most  places,  if  the  school 
funds  are  insufficient,  contributions  of  books  or 
money  may  make  up  a  small  collection.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  buy  books,  and  it  is 
worth  while  to  put  into  their  hands  a  brief  list 
of  the  volumes  most  desirable  for  them  to  own. 
The  library  should  include  at  least  the  follow- 
ing works  : 

A  good  atlas  of  modern  geography  (Andree's 
or  Stieler's  are  the  best,  and  furnish  most  for 
the  money)  ; 

An  historical  atlas;  Putzger  is  cheap  and 
good; 

A  standard  encyclopaedia,  biographical  dic- 
tionary, and  gazetteer ; 

Lalor's  Cyclopaedia  of  Political  Science  ; 

Ploetz's  Epitome  of  Universal  History  (for 
chronology)  ; 

One  or  two  classified  library  catalogues  (for 
bibliography) :  the  most  useful  are  the  Brook- 
lyn, Milwaukee,  Peabody,  Boston  Athenaeum  ; 

Collections  of  historical  texts  like  Poore's 


TReterence  JBooka,  115 

Charters  and  Constitutions,  and  Preston's  Docu- 
ments illustrative  of  American  History,  and  the 
various  series  of  Leaflets. 

The  standard  histories  of  each  period  and 
country  studied ; 

Sets  of  briefer  compendious  histories  like  the 
Epoch  Series  and  the  Story  of  the  Nations  se- 
ries; 

Some  of  the  handier  biographies  ;  such  as  the 
American  Statesmen  series,  Great  Command- 
ers, etc. ; 

A  few  selected  historical  novels  ; 

Good  illustrated  books,  such  as  are  likely  to 
awaken  interest. 

If  books  are  scanty,  they  may  sometimes 
be  borrowed  for  a  few  days  or  weeks,  and  a 
working  collection  in  some  particular  topic 
may  thus  be  made.  Where  there  is  a  library, 
it  should  be  drilled  into  pupils'  minds  that  they 
do  not  learn  history  unless  they  use  it. 

If  a  taste  for  historical  literature  is  thus 
formed,  it  is  likely  that  pupils  will  read  for 
themselves  at  home.  It  is  easy  to  suggest,  in 
class,  books  that  illustrate  the  subject  under 
discussion.  It  may  even  be  desirable  to  make 
out  and  distribute  lists  of  general  readings, 
parallel  with  the  subject.  In  some  schools 
pupils  are  encouraged  to  give  the  substance  of 
their  outside  readings  in  recitation.  The  free 
use  of  books  may  further  be  encouraged  by 


11^  treacbtng  of  fbietox^. 

clubs  and  debating  societies,  and  by  public  dis- 
cussions. 

I     From  the  beginning  of  historical  instruction 

•  to  the  end,  geography  should  be  made  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  work.  No  teacher  should  ex- 
pect his  pupils  to  understand  history  without 

'  making  clear  to  them  the  physical  features  of 
the  country  described.  Fortunately  there  are 
good  physical  wall  maps  of  most  countries ;  and 
excellent  and  cheap  little  relief  maps  begin  to 
appear.  When  we  come  to  historical  geography, 
there  is  a  dearth  of  good  atlases  and  maps. 
Whatever  atlas  may  be  used,  the  teacher  ought 
to  supplement  it  by  a  set  of  historical  maps  of 
his  own  manufacture.  By  using  outline  maps, 
which  may  be  had  on  scales  large  and  small  for 
most  important  countries,  and  by  utilizing  the 
power  stored  in  the  minds  and  fingers  of  his 
pupils,  the  teacher  may,  in  a  few  years,  have  a 
set  of  unique  maps.  No  topical  work  is  more 
interesting  to  the  student  than  the  preparation 
of  maps.  Elaborate  drawing-rooms  and  expen- 
sive supplies  are  not  necessary ;  a  few  cheap 
water-colors  and  brushes,  and  a  roll  of  outline 
maps  or  of  stout  paper,  are  all  that  is  nec- 
essary ;  and  geography  will  thus  come  to  have 
a  new  meaning  by  practical  exercise. 

/C  The  proper  teaching  of  history  in  the  sec- 
i  Ondary  schools  calls  for  no  new,  complex,  or 

Expensive,  methods ;  there  ought  to  be  a  good 


•historical  0eo9rapbi2»  117 

text-book  for  a  basis  of  fact:  a  good  teacher 
to  explain  relations ;  a  good  library  as  a  source 
of  material ;  and  good  practice  in  the  use  of  the 
library,  as  a  training  to  the  judgment. 

Bibliographical  Note.— The  titles  of  many 
books;  pamphlets,  and  articles  on  the  teaching 
of  history  may  be  found  in  Hall  and  Mansfield's 
Hints  toward  a  Select  and  Descriptive  Bibliography 
of  Education,  (Boston :  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1886.) 
These  gentlemen  have  added  a  few  words  of 
instructive  comment  to  most  of  the  titles.  Re- 
cent articles  on  the  subject  are  to  be  found  in 
The  Academy  for  June,  1886,  in  the  Moderator 
for  May,  1887,  and  in  Education  for  June,  1887. 
The  latter  is  by  Dr.  Francis  N.  Thorpe,  who 
has  also  reprinted  from  Education  a  pamphlet 
on  American  History  in  American  Schools^  Col- 
leges, and  Universities,  Hints  on  historical 
study  and  historical  reading  may  be  found  in 
the  Old  South  Leaflets  and  Old  North  Studies  in 
History,  prepared  by  Mr.  Edwin  D.  Mead,  in 
connection  with  the  free  popular  lectures 
which  he  has  directed  ;  there  are  brief  hints  in 
Mr.  George  L.  Fox's  Study  of  Politics  in  Unity 
Clubs  and  Classes,  (Chicago :  Colegrove  Book 
Co.,  1885.)  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  has  also 
edited  a  book  on  Methods  of  Teaching  History, 
(Boston  :  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1885.)  Many  of 
the  topical  outlines  contain  suggestions. 


ii8  tTeacblng  ot  Ibtstors, 

The  most  elaborate  discussion  of  historical 
study  and  teaching  is  the  invaluable  treatise 
by  Professor  B.  A.  Hinsdale :  How  to  Study  and 
Teach  History,  (New  York,  Appletons,  1894.) 
In  1893  appeared  the  well-known  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten  to  the  National  Educational 
Association.  It  contains  the  Report  on  History^ 
Civil  Government^  and  Political  Economy,  which 
is  a  systematic  little  treatise  on  the  arrange- 
ment of  historical  courses  in  schools,  and  the 
methods  applicable. 

The  following  works,  containing  lists  of 
topics,  in  most  cases  with  references  appended, 
have  come  to  the  notice  of  the  writer. 

Charles  K.  Adams :  in  his  Manual  of  His- 
torical Literature.  New  York:  Harper  & 
Brothers,  1882. 

Charles  K.  Adams :  Questions  and  Notes  on 
the  Constitutional  History  of  England.  Ann 
Arbor  :  Sheehan  &  Co.,  1879. 

John  G.  Allen  :  Topical  Studies  in  American 
History.  Rochester :  Scrantom,  Wetmore  & 
Co.,  1885. 

William  F.  Allen  :  History  Topics  for  the  Use 
of  High  Schools  and  Colleges.  Boston:  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  1886. 

Henry  L.  Boltwood  :  Topical  Outline  of  Gen- 
eral History.  Chicago:  George  Sherwood  & 
Co. 

Edward  Channing  and  Albert  Bushnell  Hart: 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History.  Boston : 
Ginn  &  Co.,  1895. 


tropical  ©utllnes.  119 

Hannah  A.  Davidson:  Reference  History  of 
the  United  States  for  High  Schools  and  Academies, 
Boston  :  Ginn  &  Co.,  1892. 

[Charles  F.  Dunbar]  :  Economics  VHI.  {His- 
tory of  Financial  Legislation  in  the  United  States^ 
Cambridge,  prjnted  by  the  University  [1892]. 

[Charles  F.  Dunbar] :  Topics  and  References 
in  Political  Economy  IV.  {Economic  History  of 
Europe  and  America  since  the  Seven  Years'  War.'] 
Cambridge:  William  H.  Wheeler,  1885. 

Charles  S.  Farrar :  History  of  Sculpture,  Paint- 
ing, and  Architecturs.  Chicago:  Townsend 
MacCoun,  1881. 

William  E.  Foster :  Monthly  Reference  Lists, 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Public  Library,  Providence, 
1 88 1,  1883.     [Out  of  print] 

William  E.  Foster :  References  to  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  With  an  appendix. 
New  York  :  Society  for  Political  Education. 
(Economic  Tracts  No.  29),  1890. 

William  E.  Foster:  References  to  the  History 
of  Presidential  Administrations.  New  York:  So- 
ciety for  Political  Education,  1885. 

Wilbur  Fisk  Gordy  and  Willis  Ira  Twitchell : 
A  Pathfinder  in  American  History.  2  pts.  in  i 
vol.     Boston:   Lee  &  Shepard,  1893. 

Albert  Bushnell  Hart :  Suggestions  on  the 
Study  of  United  States  History  and  Government, 
prepared  for  the  use  of  Students  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity.   Cambridge  :  Harvard  University,  1893. 

J.  W.  Jenks :  Practical  Economic  Questions. 
Albany  :  University  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
1893. 

Henry  Matson  :  References  for  Literary  Work- 
ers.    Chicago:  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  1892. 

Martin  L.  Smith :  Brief  Compend  of  the  His- 


I20  tieacbfng  of  1bf0ton?» 

tory  of  the  United  States.  Boston  and  New 
York:  Leach,  Shewell,  and  Sanborn,  1886. 

Edwin  E.  Sparks  :  Topical  Reference  Lists  in 
American  History ^  with  Introductory  Lists  in 
English  Constitutional  History.  Columbus,  Ohio, 
A.  H.  Smythe,  1893. 

[Frank  W.  Taussig :  Topics  and  References  in 
Economics  F/.]  Tariff  Legislation  in  the  United 
States.    Cambridge:  Harvard  University,  1892. 

Frank  W.  Taussig :  Topics  and  References  in 
Economics  V,  Railways  in  the  United  States. 
Cambridge:  Harvard  University  [1893]. 

Francis  Newton  Thorpe  :  Outline  of  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Government  in  the  United  States.  Phila- 
delphia, 1893. 

George  A.  Williams  :  Topics  and  References 
in  American  History.  Syracuse :  C.  W.  Bardeen, 
1886. 

The  list  price  of  these  books  ranges  from 
twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar ;  any  of  them 
might  be  had  in  quantities  for  school  use  at  a 
considerable  reduction. 

The  following  books  will  be  found  of  great 
assistance  in  selecting  a  reference  library,  or 
filling  up  gaps  in  one  already  formed. 

Lyman  Abbott:  Hints  for  Home  Reading. 
New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1880. 

Osmund  Airy :  Books  on  English  History. 
London  :  Simpkins,  Marshall  &  Co.,  1886. 

American  Library  Association  :  Catalog  of  the 
''A.  L.  A.''  Library.  Washington  Bureau  of 
Education  [No.  20],  1893, 


B(D6  to  Selectfom  121 

H.  Courthope  Bo  wen :  Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  Historical  Novels  and  Tales.  London :  Edward 
Stanford,  1882. 

R.  R.  Bowker  and  George  lies :  The  Readers' 
Guide  in  Economic,  Social,  and  Political  Science. 
New  York :  Society  for  Political  Education, 
1891. 

Lynds  E.  Jones :  The  Best  Reading,  Second 
Series,  Priced  and  Catalogue  Bibliography  {Cur- 
rent Literature  o?tly.'\  New  York :  G.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons,  1882. 

Charles  H.  Moore  :  What  to  Read  and  How  to 
Read.     New  York  :  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1875. 

Frederic  B.  Perkins  :  The  Best  Reading.  New 
York  :  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1877. 

Noah  Porter:  Books  and  Reading.  New 
York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1881. 

I.  A.  Spencer:  Course  of  English  Reading, 
New  York :  James  Miller,  1873. 

William  G.  Sumner,  W.  E.  Foster  and  others: 
Political  Economy  and  Political  Science.  A 
Priced  and  Classified  List  of  Books.  First  and 
second  Series.  Society  for  Political  Educa- 
tion.    New  York:  1881,1882. 

G.  A.  F.  Van  Rhyn  :  What  and  How  to  Read. 
New  York  :  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1875. 

Justin  Winsor :  Narrative  and  Critical  His- 
tory of  America.  Boston  :  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co. 

The  publishers*  prices  of  American  books 
now  in  print  may  very  easily  be  found  in  Ley- 
poldt's  American  Catalogue ^  New  York  (3  vols.). 
New  York,  1880-1892. 


VI. 

tCbc  Status  ot  Htblettcs  in  ametlcan 
Colleges^ 


One  of  the  popular  delusions  about  colleges 
is  the  notion  that  college  students  are  a  race 
apart ;  that  they  have  temptations  quite  differ- 
rent  from  and  more  numerous  than  those  met 
by  other  young  men  ;  that  they  have  different 
amusements,  different  standards — in  a  word,  a 
different  human  nature.  Those  who  live  among 
students  know  that  they  are,  in  the  main,  very 
like  their  twin  brothers  at  home  or  in  business : 
they  are  not  much  wiser,  and  are  as  prone  to 
do  absurd  things ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  have 
more  leisure,  more  command  of  their  time,  a 
wider  range  of  interest,  and  a  tickling  sense  of 
belonging  to  a  guild  of  learning ;  so  that,  on  the 
whole,  they  are  more  likely  than  other  young 
men  to  avoid  bad  or  vicious  habits. 

The  same  principle  applies  in  athletics  as  in 
more  important  things.  College  athletes  are 
not  a  peculiar  genus  of  the  homo  juvenis ;  they 
are  very  like  other  strong  young  men.    College 

(122) 


athletic  clubs  are  governed  by  the  same  rules 
and  principles  as  other  amateur  clubs.  Yet 
there  are  some  reasons  why  the  interest  in  such 
matters  is  sharper  where  colleges  are  con- 
cerned, why  abuses  are  more  apt  to  creep  in, 
and  why  attention  should  be  directed  more 
carefully  to  the  manner  in  which  college  ath- 
letics are  conducted. 

;  The  enormous  and  perhaps  disproportioned 
public  interest  in  college  sports  is  made  evi- 
dent several  times  a  year  by  the  items  and 
squibs  of  the  daily  press  ;  and  this  is  an  inter- 
est which  has  grown  up  within  the  last  thirty 
years.  The  enjoyment  of  sports  is  as  old  as 
the  toys  of  Egyptian  children,  or  the  ball-game 
of  Nausicaa  and  her  maids. 

'i<paip-p  ra\  ^  &p'  iimi^ov     ,     ■     .     ot  8*  4irl  fjiaKphv  &v<Tav. 
"  With  the  ball  they  played,     ,     ,     .     and  mightily  they 
shrieked." 

The  contest  of  animal  with  animal,  of  men 
with  animals,  and  still  more  of  men  with  men, 
has  excited  Greek,  Roman,  and  barbarian. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  a  stand-up  fight  between 
two  trained  men  or  bodies  of  men,  whether 
fought  with  fists,  rapiers,  Winchester  rifles,  or 
army  corps,  or  "  interference  "  is  the  most  ab- 
sorbing of  human  diversions.  In  modern  ath- 
letic sports,  however,  the  contest  is  not  usually 
against  a  man's  person  ;  our  preference  is  still 


1^4  College  Btbletics, 

for  races  and  competitions  rather  than  for  set- 
tos. 

This  milder  and  manlier  form  of  sport  is  due 
to  England.  While  German  youths  still  exer- 
cised with  a  sword  and  American  lads  with 
a  trotting-sulky,  young  Englishmen  ran,  rowed, 
played  cricket,  and  revived  foot-ball  and  tennis. 
The  development  in  England  has  been  due  in 
part  to  the  ancient  customs  of  the  people, 
in  part  to  climate,  in  great  part  to  the  schools 
of  that  country.  School-boys*  sports  have, 
during  the  past  fifty  years,  been  carried  into 
the  universities  and  into  private  life. 

To  England,  then,  we  owe  the  example  fol- 
lowed in  our  outdoor  sports ;  and  in  England 
the  practice  has  been  brought  under  certain 
generally  accepted  principles.  In  the  first 
place,  no  sport  among  gentlemen  can  be  direct- 
ed against  the  life  or  limbs  of  an  antagonist. 
To  inflict  bodily  injury  was  the  great  object  of 
the  Greek  boxer  and  the  Roman  gladiator.  In 
modern  days  even  in  boxing  to  wound  is  to  be 
awkward.  For  better  security,  almost  all  ath- 
letic sports  avoid  personal  contact ;  players 
strike  the  ball,  but  not  one  another. 

To  carry  out  the  principle  of  avoiding  bodily 
injuries,  and  to  make  the  game  more  interest- 
ing, a  second  principle  is  applied :  the  sports 
are  all  hedged  in  by  elaborate  rules.  Every 
complicated  game,  especially  foot-ball,  seems  to 


Sports  anO  IRules*  125 

the  uninitiated  an  elaborate  system  of  how-not- 
to-do-it.  Strength,  fleetness,  and  agility  are  to 
be  applied  only  in  specified  ways.  Here  is  an 
example,  taken  from  the  Intercollegiate  foot-ball 
rules :  "  A  player  may  throw  or  pass  the  ball 
in  any  direction  except  toward  opponent's 
goal."  Yet  the  sole  object  of  the  game  is  some- 
how to  move  the  ball  precisely  in  the  direction 
forbidden,  by  throw  or  pass.  The  basis  of  the 
sport  is  always  the  tacit  assumption  that  the 
game  is  between  gentlemen  who  wish  to  win, 
but  who  accept  and  observe  the  limitations  set 
by  the  rules.  The  principle  that  an  umpire 
shall  be  provided  has  been  established,  but  the 
practice  is  intended  only  to  meet  the  case  of 
a  gentlemanly  disagreement.  Only  under  the 
intense  competition  of  the  last  ten  years  has  it 
been  found  necessary  to  provide  double  um- 
pires, and  to  give  summary  powers  of  punish- 
ment where  a  player  wilfully  breaks  rules; 
of  late  in  the  hard-fought  contests  of  foot-ball 
a  third  judge,  the  "  linesman,"  has  been  found 
necessary.  The  necessity  itself  shows  that  the 
standard  of  sport  has  fallen  ;  that  a  professional 
spirit  has  crept  in. 

What  is  a  professional  ?  He  is  defined  and  set 
apart  by  the  third  great  principle  of  modern 
sport.  A  sharp  line  is  drawn  between  those 
who  take  up  sport  for  their  own  pleasure  and 
those  who  practise  it  for  money.     Here  is  the 


126  College  Btbletfcs, 

statement  of  the  distinction  laid  down  in  the 
rules  of  the  Amateur  Athletic  Union  of  the 
United  States  which  define  an  amateur  : — 

"  One  who  has  not  entered  in  an  open  com- 
petition ;  or  for  either  a  stake,  public  or  admis- 
sion money,  or  entrance  fee  ;  or  under  a  fic- 
titious name  ;  or  has  not  competed  with  or 
against  a  professional  for  any  prize  or  where 
admission  fee  is  charged  ;  or  who  has  not  in- 
structed, pursued,  or  assisted  in  the  pursuit  of 
athletic  exercises  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  or 
for  gain  or  any  emolument;  or  where  member- 
ship of  any  athletic  club  of  any  kind  was 
not  brought  about  or  does  not  continue  be- 
cause of  any  mutual  understanding,  express  or 
implied,  whereby  his  becoming  or  continuing  a 
member  of  such  club  would  be  of  any  pecun- 
iary benefit  to  him  whatever,  direct  or  indirect ; 
and  who  shall  in  other  and  all  respects  conform 
to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  this  organiza- 
tion." 

For  so  rigid  a  rule  there  are  abundant  rea- 
sons. A  man  who  plays  from  a  love  of  sport 
prefers  not  to  compete  with  a  man  who  has 
gained  superior  skill  by  making  his  sport  an 
occupation.  A  gentleman  has  no  reason  for 
concealing  his  name.  If  a  man's  success  in  his 
calling  depends  upon  his  winning,  or  if  his  live- 
lihood is  at  stake,  he  is  more  apt  to  break  or  to 
strain  rules ;  and  the  experience  of  the  world 
has  shown  that  one  who  receives  money  for 


•QClbat  ie  a  iprotesBfonan  127 

winning  a  contest  may  sometimes,  by  the  offer 
of  a  larger  sum,  be  induced  to  lose.  Contests  of 
professionals,  therefore,  are  not  so  sure  to  be 
carried  through  on  the  merits  of  the  competi- 
tors. Owing  to  this  element  of  trickery,  pro- 
fessional sports  offer  a  field  for  betting  and  for 
other  forms  of  gambling.  There  are  hundreds 
of  perfectly  honest  professionals,  but  in  accept- 
ing money  for  their  services  they  give  up  the 
element  of  personal  pleasure,  and  change  their 
sport  into  a  task. 

In  America,  boat-racing  and  games  of  ball 
are  as  old  as  boyhood,  rivers,  and  town  com- 
mons, but  in  the  colleges  and  outside  they 
were  very  simple  and  unorganized  school-boy 
sports  till  about  thirty  years  ago.  Regular 
teams  began  in  boating,  and  there  was  a  race 
between  Harvard  and  Yale  in  1852.  In  1858, 
the  present  president  of  Harvard  University 
was  a  member  of  the  famous  Harvard  crew 
which  brought  the  first  six-oared  shell  in  ahead 
of  a  rival  Boston  boat. 

The  Civil  War  gave  a  singular  impetus  to 
field  sports  of  all  kinds.  Perhaps  the  boys  in 
blue  brought  home  a  love  of  fresh  air  and  ex- 
ercise from  their  marches  and  bivouacs ;  per- 
haps the  German  turnvereine  taught  Ameri- 
cans the  use  of  their  muscles ;  perhaps  gentle 
croquet  led  to  more  active  sports.  In  1863 
came  the  first  organized  games  of  intercolle- 


128  College  Btbletlca* 

giate  base-ball.  The  sport  spread  throughout 
the  country,  and  the  college  teams  contended 
on  equal,  sometimes  on  superior  terms,  with  the 
mighty  and  forgotten  Lowells,  Peconics,  and 
Redstockings.  The  Canadians  taught  us  foot- 
ball and  lacrosse  about  1877.  Lawn  tennis  and 
bicycling  came  in  a  little  later.  Amateur  rec- 
ords in  track  athletics  began  to  be  taken  about 
1875. 

For  the  conduct  of  these  sports  there  are 
numerous  permanent  and  recognized  amateur 
organizations.  In  all  the  large  cities  athletic 
clubs  have  begun  to  spring  up,  with  expensive 
houses  and  apparatus ;  but  the  chief  seat  of 
amateur  sport  is  in  the  colleges.  Here  are  as- 
semblages of  young  men  having  unusual  con- 
trol over  their  own  time ;  here  is  a  strong  feel- 
ing of  esprit  de  corps ;  here,  out  of  the  many 
players  offering  themselves,  a  first-rate  team 
may  easily  be  formed.  Not  one  in  twenty  of 
the  spectators  at  a  professional  base-ball  game 
knows  any  of  the  players  personally,  or  ever 
himself  handles  the  bat ;  while  in  the  colleges 
the  athletic  spirit  is  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
fact  that  the  whole  body  of  students,  and  often 
of  professors,  feel  a  personal  interest  in  the 
players.  College  authorities  acknowledge,  will- 
ingly or  unwillingly,  that  athletic  sports  must 
be  allowed  and  even  encouraged,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  sentiment  that  physical  exercise 


Bmateuc  ©rganfsatfons^  129 

is  essential  for  the  most  efficient  use  of  the 
mind ;  and  in  the  colleges  are  usually  the  best 
facilities  for  exercise  as  well  as  contest.  No 
large  institution  of  learning  is  now  considered 
complete  without  a  good  gymnasium  and  some 
instruction  in  field  sports  ;  the  college  athletic 
associations  are  more  numerous  and  important 
than  other  amateur  organizations.  In  the  col- 
leges, therefore,  the  growth  and  effect  of  ath- 
letics are  more  clearly  discernible  than  else- 
where. 

The  first  distinct  result  of  athletics,  as  seen 
in  academic  groves,  is  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  average  of  bodily  strength.  The  popu- 
lar caricature  of  the  college  student  no  longer 
represents  the  stoop-shouldered,  long-haired 
grind,  but  a  person  of  impossible  biceps  and 
rudimentary  brains.  As  a  fact,  the  most  popu- 
lar man  in  any  college  class  to-day  is  usually  a 
good  student  who  can  do  something  in  athletics 
better  than  anybody  else.  The  effect  of  this 
accepted  standard  of  complete  manliness  is  seen 
on  men  who  never  take  part  in  athletic  con- 
tests. The  bodily  vigor  and  health  of  students 
in  the  colleges  have  visibly  risen  in  twenty 
years ;  the  variety  of  exercise  is  greater ;  a 
larger  number  take  exercise.  Experienced  di- 
rectors and  trainers  apply  scientific  methods  of 
developing  the  body.  The  Director  of  the 
Hemenway  Gymnasium  states,  as  the  result  of 
9 


t^6  aollCQC  Btbletic0* 

more  than  four  thousand  measurements  since 
1879,  that  he  has  now  a  record  of  at  least  forty 
men  in  Harvard  University,  each  of  whom  is 
stronger  than  was  the  strongest  man  in  1880. 
Of  course,  there  is  a  tendency  to  admire  mus- 
cle and  strength  for  themselves  instead  of  as  a 
means  of  health  or  enjoyment,  but  the  physi- 
cal results  of  athletic  sports  are  highly  bene- 
ficial. 

An  equally  striking  change  is  the  great  de- 
velopment of  skill  in  athletics.  The  famous 
base-ball  teams  of  the  sixties  could  not  now 
make  a  run  against  a  good  nine ;  the  records  in 
athletics  are  constantly  being  broken.  This 
skill  is  gained,  however,  at  the  cost  of  in- 
creased expenditure  of  time.  Rowing  men 
must  settle  down  to  their  work  in  December, 
if  they  hope  to  win  in  July.  Captains  of  teams 
spend  more  and  more  thought  on  selecting  and 
placing  players,  on  training,  on  planning  cam- 
paigns. Hence,  college  teams  far  surpass  all 
other  amateurs,  and  are  but  little  inferior  to 
the  most  skilful  professionals.  The  inevitable 
result  is  that,  to  the  participants,  the  element 
of  sport  is  fast  disappearing.  It  is  very  agree- 
able to  be  recognized  as  a  "  star  player  "  and 
to  travel  with  a  team ;  but  any  one  who 
watches  a  great  contest  must  admit  that  it  is 
"  sport "  only  for  the  excited  spectators  ;  the 
participants  find  both  practice  and  match  hard, 


Stren^tb  an^  SMI  131 

unremitting  work.  As  the  Dean  of  Harvard 
College  in  his  report  of  1893  says  of  the  fresh- 
man :  "  If  he  does  not  surrender  himself  to  foot- 
ball body  and  soul,  he  is  abused  for  treating  so 
serious  a  pursuit  as  if  it  were  play."  To  sup- 
pose that  the  labor  discourages  men  from  try- 
ing for  the  teams  is  a  mistake.  Where  one 
man  gets  on,  ten  try ;  where  ten  try,  twenty 
play  "  for  the  fun  of  the  thing ;  "  where  twenty 
play  occasionally,  a  hundred  are  influenced  to 
keep  up  some  regular  exercise.  The  standard 
of  skill  required  for  enjoyment  in  a  "  scrub  " 
game  has  not  been  raised.  Nevertheless,  the 
great  matches,  especially  in  foot-ball,  are  com- 
ing to  have  the  interest  of  gladiatorial  con- 
tests ;  players  are  not  there  to  pass  a  pleasant 
afternoon  or  to  show  their  skill,  but  to  beat.  '*  It 
is  magnificent,  but  it  is — war." 

Such  elaborate  contests  cannot  be  carried  on 
without  great  preparation  and  expense.  In 
addition  to  gymnasium  trainers,  paid  by  the 
college  authorities,  many  teams  have  coaches, 
often  professionals.  Another  great  source  of 
expense  is  the  training-tables  ;  the  board  often 
costs  double  the  ordinary  rate,  and  the  differ- 
ence— sometimes  the  whole — is  paid  by  the 
management.  Whenever  a  team  travels,  it 
makes  up  a  little  array  of  players,  managers, 
and  attendants,  whose  expenses  are  paid  by  the 
organization.    Men  so  solicitous  to  win,  spare 


132  College  Btbletics, 

no  money  that  will  insure  greater  comfort. 
The  incidental  expenses  for  such  organizations 
are  sometimes  appalling:  uniforms,  accoutre- 
ments, the  travelling  expenses  of  managers  and 
delegates,  the  keeping  of  grounds  in  order — 
these  are  but  a  part  of  the  items.  In  the  year 
1893  for  a  single  campaign  lasting  about  seven 
weeks,  the  Harvard  Foot-ball  Association  had 
paid  out  $16,238.86,  or  an  average  of  $700  for 
every  actual  player ;  and  Yale  expended  $16,- 
652.43.  The  same  organizations  received  re- 
spectively $23,500  and  $29,000,  and  the  total  re- 
ceipts for  athletics  were  $51,000  and  $67,000. 
To  turn  over  and  judiciously  to  expend  sums 
so  considerable  might  perhaps  give  the  finan- 
cial officers  of  athletic  associations  good  busi- 
ness training ;  but  the  money  has  usually  been 
handled  carelessly  and  spent  lavishly.  Here  is 
a  verbatim  transcript  of  an  account  rendered 
by  the  treasurer  of  a  college  organization  a 
few  years  ago ; 

RECEIPTS. 

Subscriptions,    season    tickets,    and 

other  sources      .        .        .        .        $2,917  69 
Gate  receipts  ....  3,291  74 

$6,209  43 


IRuMmentac^  dfinancea* 


EXPENDITURES. 

Uniforms 

Yale-Amherst  trip 

Brown-Princeton  . 

New  Haven  (exhibition] 

New  York  (Yale  game) 

Umpires 

Printing,  advertising,  and  sundries 


Balance  in  Bank 


$320  50 

371  45 
318  36 
190  06 
410  42 

100  GO 

3,443  94 

$5,155  ^2, 
1,053  n 

$6,209  43 


One  of  the  most  vexatious  things  about  col- 
lege athletics  is  the  india-rubber  inertia  which 
makes  it  difficult  to  induce  any  treasurer  or 
manager  to  keep  full  and  lucid  accounts  and  to 
take  vouchers,  and  which  sums  up  in  "sundries" 
all  the  items  that  can  no  longer  be  remembered. 
Not  very  long  ago,  a  perfectly  honest  young 
fellow,  who  had  been  asked  to  account  for  the 
magnitude  of  certain  expenditures,  explained 
in  good  faith  that  he  was  sure  a  particular  bill 
had  been  thrice  presented  and  paid ;  but  he 
had  taken  no  receipts. 

As  expense  has  increased,  various  moral 
evils  have  also  grown.  In  all  the  older  col- 
leges there  are  men  who  receive  from  home 
more  money  than  they  can  put  to  good  ac- 


134  College  Btbletica* 

count  for  their  personal  expenses.  Among 
that  class  betting  grows  up  ;  and  the  example 
is  followed  by  a  few  who  can  less  afford  to 
lose.  Betting  on  the  field  can  be  repressed  by- 
denying  the  use  of  grounds  to  the  organiza- 
tion which  permits  it ;  outside  betting  cannot 
be  so  controlled,  and,  as  it  takes  the  insidi- 
ous form  of  loyally  "backing  up  the  team," 
college  public  opinion  is  not  sufficiently  pro- 
nounced against  the  practice.  Of  late  years, 
the  custom  has  sprung  up  for  bodies  of  college 
men  to  attend  the  theatres  in  the  city  where 
the  great  game  has  that  day  been  played,  and, 
by  cheering,  the  waving  of  flags,  and  the  inter- 
ruption of  the  performance,  to  make  their  pref- 
erences known.  An  excited,  irresponsible  state 
of  mind  seems  to  be  induced  by  the  tremendous 
competition  of  the  greater  sports,  and  to  be 
more  marked  in  the  larger  cities. 

A  similar  excitement  manifests  itself  among 
the  general  public.  The  class-rooms  at  Cam- 
bridge and  New  Haven  are  nearly  deserted  on 
the  day  of  the  Yale-Harvard  game  at  Spring- 
field. In  New  York,  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  1893, 
there  was  paid  for  tickets  to  the  Yale-Princeton 
game  something  like  $25,000 ;  and  people  in 
North  Carolina  mountain  towns  watched  the 
telegraphic  bulletin.  Not  even  Patti  can  com- 
mand such  audiences  or  take  so  much  money 
for  one  performance.     The  newspapers  reflect 


©versBjcitement  i35 

the  public  impression  that  the  whole  interest  of 
the  colleges  is  absorbed  in  gladiatorial  shows. 

To  the  evils  just  mentioned — irregularity,  ex- 
travagance, excitement — there  is  added  a  still 
more  serious  evil,  that  of  professionalism  in  col- 
lege athletics.  The  first  approach  to  the  pro- 
fessional spirit  is  found  in  the  few  young  men 
who  become  at  least  enrolled  students  in  order 
to  develop  and  exhibit  their  skill  as  athletes. 
No  college  ought  to  have  a  place  for  such  men. 
Occasionally  they  enter  late,  and  disappear  at 
the  end  of  the  athletic  season ;  more  frequently 
they  keep  on,  year  after  year,  preventing  other 
possible  candidates  from  getting  on  the  teams. 
Another  phase  of  the  disposition  to  make  sport 
the  end  rather  than  the  means  is  the  pressure 
brought  to  bear  on  athletic  men,  who  have 
graduated  from  college,  to  return  and  go  upon 
teams.  A  further  advance  of  the  same  spirit  is 
seen  in  those  students  who  accept  from  pro- 
prietors of  summer  hotels  offers  of  board,  and 
sometimes  of  incidental  expenses,  as  an  induce- 
ment to  play  during  the  season,  and  who  thus 
come  within  the  strict  definition  of  profes- 
sionals. Another  step  is  to  receive  money  for 
occasional  games ;  and,  finally,  a  considerable 
number  of  college  students  or  graduates  have 
accepted  summer  employment  from  profes- 
sional clubs,  or  have  become  teachers  of  ath- 
letics, and    have    thus    separated    themselves 


13^  College  Btbletfcs* 

from  all  amateur  organizations  within  college 
or  outside.  Some  of  these  men  have,  by  their 
practice  of  a  sport,  acquired  the  means  honor- 
ably to  clear  off  college  debts,  or  to  provide  for 
a  professional  education.  No  one  can  com- 
plain of  their  taking  money  for  their  skill ;  but 
the  moment  a  man  begins  to  consider  his  skill 
a  pecuniary  resource  the  element  of  pleasure 
or  of  physical  benefit — that  is,  the  element  of 
sport — disappears,  and  with  it  the  purpose  for 
which  college  athletics  exist. 

Serious  as  are  the  evils  connected  with  ath- 
letic sports,  the  writer  believes  that  they  are 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  effect  on  the 
health  of  the  students,  and  by  the  opportu- 
nity given  for  working  off  youthful  spirits  in 
a  harmless  way.  Students  themselves  are 
sensible  of  the  evils,  but  the  expectation  that 
they  would  in  their  own  way  find  a  remedy 
has  not  been  realized.  Students'  organiza- 
tions are  loose  ;  college  generations  are  very 
short ;  traditions  quickly  fade ;  and  there  is 
lack  of  permanent  policy.  Captains  usually 
serve  a  single  year,  and  each  feels  like  one  of 
the  ten  Greek  generals  on  his  day  of  command. 
It  is  almost  impossible  for  one  college  to  ob- 
tain any  reform  without  negotiation  with  other 
colleges,  and  diplomacy  enough  to  secure  an 
extradition  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  Or- 
ganizations controlled  by  graduates  do  better 


nccb  of  H^esulatlom  i37 

because  they  hold  the  undergraduates  down  to 
a  definite  policy.  Hence  those  colleges  in 
which  the  graduates  have  most  influence, 
as  Yale  and  Princeton,  have  proved  upon  the 
field  and  the  river  the  excellence  of  graduate 
management.  But  the  system  is  not  very 
much  freer  than  untrammelled  control  by  un- 
dergraduates from  the  evils  of  extravagance, 
sharp  practice,  and  wastefulness  of  time.  The 
teams  are  better ;  the  morale  of  the  sports  is 
little  improved. 

College  faculties  have  been  unwilling  to  take 
responsibility  for  athletic  contests,  and  have 
from  the  first  rather  tolerated  them  as  an 
unavoidable  evil.  They  began  by  legislating 
against  broken  windows  and  broken  heads. 
As  it  was  evident  that  athletic  sports  were 
a  vigorous  growth,  the  next  step  was  to  make 
provisions  for  exercise  by  building  new  gym- 
nasiums. In  some  cases  physical  examinations 
have  been  required,  as  at  Amherst,  or  exercise 
has  been  made  obligatory,  as  at  Cornell. 

Then  came  a  time  when  it  was  discovered 
that  students  were  making  appointments  which 
took  them  away  from  college  work,  or  which 
unduly  absorbed  the  attention  of  their  fellows. 
A  mild  system  of  interference  was  adopted, 
with  gentle  rules  as  to  time,  place,  and  num- 
ber of  games.  Some  colleges,  notably  Yale, 
have  gone  no  further,  preferring  to  leave  the 


13^  College  Btbletice* 

whole  matter  to  students.  Additional  legisla- 
tion has  been  difficult :  any  serious  limitations 
have  been  resented  by  the  students ;  and  the 
smaller  colleges  have  hesitated  to  take  any 
step  which  might  keep  students  away.  Most 
of  the  larger  colleges,  however,  have  appointed 
Faculty  committees  on  athletics,  whose  office 
has  been  to  exercise  moral  suasion  over  the 
students,  and  sometimes  actually  to  regulate. 
There  has  been  little  interference  with  student 
organizations.  Money  has  been  collected  by 
subscription,  and  it  has  been  a  delicate  mat- 
ter to  protect  voluntary  subscribers  from 
their  own  agents ;  but  with  the  present  large 
revenues  from  gate  money  a  system  of  audit 
has  been  found  indispensable.  In  some  col- 
leges it  is  exercised  by  graduate  committees. 
At  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Princeton  by  strenuous 
exertion,  the  organizations  have  been  brought 
to  agree  to  the  appointment  of  a  graduate 
treasurer,  and  to  the  deposit  of  surpluses  aris- 
ing from  gate  money,  to  be  used  for  general 
athletic  purposes. 

The  evils  incident  to  the  keen  competition  of 
intercollegiate  athletics  have  received  little 
checks  from  individual  faculties.  The  trouble 
is,  of  course,  that  any  restriction  put  upon  a 
team  is  a  handicap,  unless  applied  to  its  com- 
petitors. Half  a  dozen  years  ago,  therefore, 
Harvard  proposed  a  system  of  general  regula- 


3faculti2  1Re6trfctfon0.  139 

tion  by  the  authorities  of  all  the  principal  col- 
leges ;  but  it  was  found  impossible  to  get  an 
agreement.  For  a  time  Harvard  forbade  her 
teams  to  play  against  professionals.  That  re- 
striction was  withdrawn,  as  tending  to  keep  up 
an  irritation  between  students  and  Faculty  ; 
since  every  defeat  was  ascribed  to  the  want  of 
practice  with  professionals. 

The  futility  of  the  restriction  was  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  face  of  it  the  professional 
spirit  steadily  grew  at  Harvard  and  elsewhere. 
Evasion  of  the  rules  became  more  common ; 
men  were  brought  into  the  colleges  who  had 
no  serious  purpose  of  study  ;  the  behavior  of 
men  on  the  field  was  rough  and  sometimes 
coarse.  The  governing  boards  began  to  take 
alarm,  and  the  Harvard  Overseers,  in  the  spring 
of  1888,  came  almost  to  the  resolution  to  pro- 
hibit intercollegiate  contests.  At  this  point  a 
committee  of  the  Faculty  made  an  investiga- 
tion, and  reported  that  "intercollegiate  con- 
tests stimulate  athletics,  stimulate  general 
exercise,  and  thus  favorably  affect  the  health 
and  moral  tone  of  the  university."  They  sug- 
gested a  mixed  committee  of  members  from  the 
Faculty,  graduates,  and  undergraduates,  with 
adequate  powers.  That  committee  was  ap- 
pointed in  1888,  and  has  formulated  a  policy  of 
regulation. 

The  difficulties  of  restriction   have   already 


140  College  Btbletics, 

been  set  forth.  Since  the  principal  evils  of 
athletics  are  those  of  excess  rather  than  of  in- 
herent wrong,  they  are  hard  to  regulate  by 
statute.  In  many  cases,  they  arise  from  a  neg- 
lect by  the  students  to  look  after  the  details  of 
their  own  contests,  and  such  neglect  cannot  be 
supplemented  by  supervision.  Busy  faculties 
have  neither  the  time  nor  the  inclination  to 
form  and  hold  a  consistent  policy  in  regard  to 
athletics.  It  is  felt  that  athletic  sports  are  only 
a  very  incidental  and  subsidiary  part  of  college 
life,  and  that  control  of  them  requires  the  time 
and  interest  of  professors  who  are  better  em- 
ployed in  teaching  ;  and  hence  that  they  should 
either  be  unrestricted  or  wholly  prohibited. 
Such  is  the  argument  of  those  who  advocate 
the  prohibition  of  intercollegiate  contests.  It 
seems  to  furnish  an  easy  solution  to  say,  "  Let 
the  boys  attend  to  their  duties." 

To  solve  the  question  in  this  off-hand  manner 
is  impossible.  If  there  were  no  athletic  clubs 
or  athletic  young  men  outside  the  colleges, 
perhaps  the  matter  might  be  one  for  academic 
discipline  ;  if  intercollegiate  contests  were  less 
attractive  to  students  and  their  friends,  to 
graduates  and  men  interested  in  the  colleges, 
they  might  be  relegated  to  the  place  they  oc- 
cupied twenty  years  ago,  and  again  become 
simply  an  agreeable  diversion  for  half-holidays 
and  vacations.     If  athletics  had  not  many  dis- 


I>rob(bft(on  2)fmcult  141 

tinctly  bracing  effects  on  the  physical  and  mor- 
al tone  of  young  men,  the  system  of  contests 
might  be  treated  as  an  evil  per  se.  If  there  were 
not  at  bottom  a  healthy  moral  sentiment  among 
the  students,  opposed  to  professionalism  and 
kindred  evils,  the  governing  boards  might  at- 
tempt to  supply  an  artificial  conscience.  No 
votes  of  the  faculty  or  other  governing  boards 
can  permanently  put  an  end  to  intercollegiate 
athletic  contests  at  the  present  day,  because 
nine-tenths  of  the  students  and  at  least  seven- 
tenths  of  the  graduates  consider  them  de- 
sirable. 

Can,  then,  no  principles  of  limitation  and 
restriction  be  found,  which  students,  graduates, 
and  governing  boards  will  unite  in  thinking 
reasonable  ?  Most  certainly  there  are  some 
such  fundamental  conditions  which  may  be  im- 
posed. The  first  business  of  every  man, 
whether  in  a  bank,  in  a  law  office,  or  in  a  col- 
lege, is  to  perform  his  daily  task :  students, 
therefore,  will  readily  accommodate  themselves 
to  regulations  intended  to  bring  contests  out  of 
the  hours  of  college  exercises,  and  to  restrict 
the  number  of  games  played  abroad.  Impor- 
tant contests  at  a  distance  from  home,  or  in  a 
city  not  the  seat  of  either  contesting  college, 
plainly  lead  to  irregularities  and  to  interference 
with  study  ;  and  the  effects  of  the  excitement 
thus  induced  extend  far  beyond  the  day  of  the 


142  College  Btbletfca* 

contest.  Experience  has  shown  that  students 
are  candid  enough  to  admit  the  necessity  of 
reducing  the  geographical  compass  of  their 
sports.  The  first  principle  of  regulation  is  to 
subordinate  athletics  to  study.  It  would  aid 
the  enforcement  of  this  principle  if  games  were 
allowed  only  on  the  college  grounds. 

The  second  principle  is  that  every  organiza- 
tion of  every  kind  which  goes  before  the  public 
as  emanating  from  a  college,  or  bearing  its 
name,  shall  present  none  but  genuine  represent- 
atives of  that  college,  and  shall  do  nothing 
discreditable  to  alma  mater.  The  principle  ap- 
plies as  much  to  theatrical  and  musical  per- 
formances as  to  athletic  contests.  No  man 
ought  to  be  permitted  to  sing,  to  act,  or  to 
contest  as  a  member  of  a  college  organization,  if 
he  be  under  college  censure,  or  if  he  be  a  stu- 
dent only  for  a  few  months,  or  if  he  come  only 
to  pursue  his  favorite  amusement.  The  present 
rules  of  the  most  careful  colleges  exclude  spe- 
cial students  in  their  first  year,  and  limit  the 
continuance  on  a  university  team  to  four  years. 
It  is  equally  important  to  keep  alive  the  feeling 
that  the  members  of  teams  compete  for  the 
fame  of  their  college,  and  not  for  any  pecuniary 
gain  to  themselves :  for  this  reason,  students 
who  have  enjoyed  a  money  profit  from  the 
practice  of  their  sport  must  be  excluded  rigor- 


Iprfndples  ot  IRe^uIatfom  i43 

ously,  although  their  regular  standing  as  mem- 
bers of  the  college  may  be  unquestioned. 
Here,  again,  so  soon  as  students  clearly  per- 
ceive how  and  why  professionalism  degrades 
amateur  sport,  they  heartily  join  in  an  attempt 
to  keep  out  professionals. 

A  third  principle  is  that  of  publicity.  No 
organization  which,  from  its  connection  with  a 
college,  secures  subscriptions  from  undergrad- 
uates and  graduates,  enjoys  the  use  of  college 
grounds  or  buildings,  or  appears  before  the 
public  under  the  college  name,  has  any  right  to 
conceal  its  accounts,  or  to  refuse  to  the  authori- 
ties of  the  college  a  knowledge  of  its  methods, 
its  system  of  training,  and  the  men  who  are  to 
make  up  its  teams.  The  system  of  irresponsi- 
ble handling  of  large  funds,  of  irresponsible 
selection  of  players,  and  of  irresponsible 
diplomacy  with  other  colleges  is  one  which  ac- 
knowledges only  half  the  principle  of  freedom. 
A  boy  chooses  his  college,  but  abides  by  its 
discipline.  A  student  chooses  or  accepts  his 
studies ;  but,  in  every  college,  his  instructors 
require  him  to  satisfy  them  that  he  pursues  the 
work  that  he  has  undertaken.  College  athletic 
sports,  as  now  conducted,  are  no  longer  private 
enterprises ;  much  more  than  college  societies 
they  affect  the  good  name  and  the  efficiency  of 
individual  colleges  and  of  college   education, 


144  College  mhlctice. 

and  the   college  authorities   have  a  right  to 
know  what  goes  on. 

In  applying  the  three  principles  above  spec- 
ified—  the  subordination  of  athletics,  exclu- 
sion of  men  not  representative,  and  publicity — 
the  co-operation  of  students  is  essential,  and  is 
freely  given.  There  is  no  want  of  good  will, 
but  a  "  plentiful  lack  "  of  good  business  habits. 
Somewhere  in  the  organization  of  a  university 
there  must  therefore  be  authority  to  require 
the  observance  of  rules  laid  down  under  the 
three  principles  enunciated  ;  and  the  judicious 
application  of  such  rules  requires  the  expen- 
diture of  a  great  deal  of  time.  The  detail  will 
inevitably  fall  into  confusion  if  not  carefully 
looked  after,  for  the  simple  reason  that  col- 
lege students  are  boyish,  thoughtless,  and 
slack,  and  that  college  generations  change 
quickly.  The  time  necessary  for  supervision 
is  well  spent,  if  it  brings  young  men  to  see  the 
reasons  for  a  punctilious  standard  in  the  selec- 
tion and  management  of  athletic  teams.  Pen- 
alties may  be  simple,  and  yet  effective.  To  de- 
prive a  man  of  the  privilege  of  taking  part  in 
athletic  contests  is  often  a  memorable  punish- 
ment to  him  and  to  his  fellows ;  to  deprive  an 
organization  of  the  use  of  grounds  or  buildings, 
for  sufficient  cause,  will  prevent  the  recurrence 
of  the  cause.    Within  the  limitations  suggested, 


Joint  Btblettc  Committees.  HS 

students  should  be  left  to  control  their  own 
affairs  and  to  make  their  own  arrangements, 
without  being  troubled  by  successive  petty  en- 
actments. Regulations  should  be  few;  con- 
ferences should  be  many. 

In  whom  should  the  authority  over  athletic 
sports  primarily  be  vested?  The  Harvard 
Committee  on  the  Regulation  of  Athletic 
Sports  is  composed  of  nine  members:  three 
members  of  the  Faculty  and  three  graduates, 
all  six  appointed  for  a  year  by  the  Corporation 
and  confirmed  by  the  Overseers ;  and  three  un- 
dergraduates, chosen  by  representatives  of  ath- 
letic organizations.  In  practice  the  six  ap- 
pointed members  serve  for  a  term  of  years. 
The  action  of  this  Committee,  or  rather  Com- 
mission, may  be  subsequently  reversed  by  the 
governing  boards,  but  during  the  six  years  of  its 
existence  it  has  never  been  so  reviewed.  The 
combination  has  proved  singularly  harmonious ; 
and  the  undergraduate  members  habitually 
show  a  spirit  of  open-mindedness  and  conserv- 
atism which  reflects  the  best  sentiment  of  the 
college.  A  similar  system  has  been  adopted  at 
Dartmouth,  and  suggested  in  other  colleges. 

This  is  not  a  perfect  system,  but  it  is  sugges- 
tive of  methods  which  ought  to  prevail  every- 
where. Athletic  sports  and  competitions  and 
intercollegiate  contests  are  an  established  part 


zo 


14^  CollCQC  BtbletfC0, 

of  the  life  of  American  colleges.  The  evils  in- 
cident to  them  can  best  be  met  by  judicious 
legislation,  founded  on  a  few  reasonable  prin- 
ciples, and  by  giving  to  students  full  freedom 
within  these  limitations.  On  the  other  hand, 
students  must  recognize  and  observe  the  public 
sentiment  which  protests  against  brutality  and 
unfairness,  wherever  shown.  If,  at  any  time, 
it  appear  that  college  sports  are  not  gentle- 
men's sports,  then  will  be  the  time  for  gov- 
erning bodies  to  choose  the  lesser  of  two  evils, 
by  prohibiting  those  intercollegiate  games  in 
which  the  bad  tendencies  most  manifest  them- 
selves. 


IFn&ey* 


ADA 

ADAMS,  Henry,  on  the  Capitol,  i. 
Adams,  John,  as  a  teacher,  7. 

^Vlgebra,  in  Cambridge  grammar 
schools,  40,  41. 

Amateur,  in  athletics,  126. 

American  history,  study  of,  94,  106. 

Americans,  distrust  of  experts,  1-4  ; 
like  Romans,  5  ;  modern  languages 
for,  41. 

Amherst  College,  physical  examina- 
tions at,  137. 

/Vncient  history,  study  of,  94,  95,  105. 

^irithmetic,  in  Cambridge,  36,  38  ;  re- 
form of,  39. 

Art,  study  of,  78. 

^Xssociation  of  Colleges  in  New  Eng- 
land, 39,  47. 

Associations,  value  of  educational,  9, 
20. 

Athens,  history  of,  80. 

Athletics  in  American  colleges,  122- 
146 ;  interest  among  students,  122, 
128 ;  origin  of,  124  ;  avoidance  of 
bodily  injury,  124  ;  complicated  rules, 
125;  "professionalism,"  125,  135; 
amateur  defined,  126;  early  sports 
in  America,  127 ;  effect  of  the  civil 
war,  127  ;  growth  in  colleges,  128  ; 
effect  on  exercise,  129  ;  long  training, 
131 ;  large  expenditures,  131  ;  poor 
book-keeping,  133  ;  pseudo-students, 
135 ;  lack  of  responsibility,  136  ;  re- 
lations of  the  college  faculties,  137  ; 
mild  regulations,  139  ;  action  of  Har- 
vard University,  139:  question  of  pro- 
hibition, 140  ;  position  of  alumni,  140 ; 
Erinciple  of  non-interference  with  col- 
;ge  exercises,  141 ;  principle  oi  bona 
^^^  students,  142;  principle  of  pub- 
licity, 143  ;  good-will  of  students,  144  ; 
athletic  committees,  145  ;  necessity  of 
reform,  146. 

Atlases,  use  in  schools,  102,  114,  116. 


COL 

BANCROFT,  George,  influence  on 
study  of  history,  92. 

Betting,  on  college  athletics,  127,  134. 

Bibliography,  guides  to  historical,  84. 

Bismarck,  in  history,  83. 

Book-keeping,  in  Cambridge,  39. 

Books,  convenience  of  possessing,  84 ; 
how  to  use,  84-86 ;  for  reference, 
99-101,  117-12T.     6'i?^  also  libraries. 

Boston,  Public  Library  built  by  "  prac- 
tical men,"  3. 

Botany,  Harvard  teachers'  course,  62. 

Brown  University,  teachers'  courses, 
56. 


CAMBRIDGE,  college  graduate 
teachers,  17  ;  schools  of,  25 ; 
primary  schools,  30  ;  reform  of  gram- 
mar schools,  28-48  ;  Harvard  courses 
for  teachers,  57-63  ;  selection  of  a 
science,  61 ;  question  of  fees  from 
teachers,  70 ;  pressure  on  teachers  to 
improve,  72. 

Canada,  example  in  athletics,  128. 

Carlyle,  his  Cromwell  books,  85. 

Cities,  possible  relations  with  uni- 
versities, 72. 

Civil  government,  teachers'  courses  in, 
63. 

Civil  War,  influence  on  athletics,  127. 

Cleveland,  popular  physician  in,  4 ; 
former  school-board,  23. 

Colleges,  professor  of  morals,  i ;  "edu- 
cation business,"  5  ;  vacations,  7  ; 
marriage  of  women  professors,  7 ; 
pedagogics  in,  8  ;  training  courses  for 
teachers,  16 ;  require  trained  instruct- 
ors, 17  ;  appointments  in,  23;  prep- 
aration for,  29 ;  interest  in  secondary 
instruction,  49  ;  advantages  of  teach- 
ers' courses,  73  ;  history  in,  91-93 ; 


(147) 


148 


IFnDes* 


COL 
entrance  requirements  in  history,  96 ; 
athletics  in,  122-146. 

Columbia  College,  Jefferson  not  of  it,  2  ; 
influence  of  the  facultj',  12 ;  interest 
in  educational  meetings,  49  ;  teach- 
ers' courses  in,  56,  63  ;  courses  in 
science  for  teachers,  61. 

Columbian  Exposition,  educational  ex- 
hibit slighted,  6. 

Congress,  its  opinion  of  scientists,  11. 

Cornell  University,  influence  of  the 
faculty,  12  :  exercise  at,  137. 

Crusades,  history  of,  81. 

Curriculum  of  schools,  teachers  not 
consulted,  13,  33 ;  reform  in  Cam- 
bridge, 35-47 ;  enlargement  neces- 
sary, 50. 


DARTMOUTH    College,    regula- 
tion of  athletics,  145. 
Democracy  in  schools,  34. 
Departmental  instruction  in  grammar 

schools,  20,  33. 
District  schools,  advantages  of,  32. 
Divver,  Paddy,  respect  for  learning, 


EDUCATION.  ^^^  colleges,  gram- 
mar schools,  schools,  teachers' 
training. 

Educators,  function  of,  24. 

Eliot,  President,  "what  does  he  find 
to  do  ?  "  5  ;  on  Cambridge  grammar 
schools,  27  ;  a  rowing  man,  127. 

England,  Reformation  in,  81  :  Smart 
period,  82 ;  example  in  athletics, 
124  ;  history  of,  83,  89,  106,  107. 

English,  study  of,  in  Cambridge,  35, 
36,  38  ;  aided  by  study  of  foreign 
languages,  42 ;  reforms  in  Cam- 
bridge, 43  ;  Harvard  teachers' 
course,  60. 

European    history,    study   of,    80-83, 

94'  95-  .  ,  ,      , 

Exammations     of     grammar     school 

pupils  abolished,  37  ;  of  teachers  by 

State,  19. 
Exercise.  See  athletics. 


FLORENCE,  government  in,  49. 
Football,  compared  with  teach- 
ing, 9 ;  rules  in,  124.     See  also  ath- 
letics. 
France,    importance    in    history,   82 ; 

topical  work  on,  87. 
Freeman,  E.  A.,  "Outlines,"  76. 
French,  in  grammar  schools,  41. 


HIS 

GARFIELD,  J.  A.,  began  as  a 
teacher,  7. 

General  history,  difficulty  of,  76,  106 ; 
time  devoted  to,  96,  98. 

Geography,  study  in  Cambridge,  36, 
43  ;  Harvard  teachers'  course  in, 
62,  66,  68 ;  historical  in  schools, 
loi,  116. 

Geometry,  study  in  Cambridge,  40; 
Harvard  teachers'  course,  59,  66, 
68. 

German,  in  grammar  schools,  41. 

Germany,  boys  in,  compared  with 
Americans,  42 ;  ancient  Germans, 
80 ;  unification  of,  82 ;  historical 
methods  in,  106. 

Grammar  schools,  teachers  little  con- 
sulted, 12 ;  place  in  education,  15  ; 
college  graduates  as  teachers,  17 ; 
departmental  instruction,  20,  34 ; 
reform  in,  22-48 ;  interest  of  super- 
intendents, 23  ;  in  Cambridge,  26- 
48  ;  function  of,  28,  29  ;  question  of 
separation  of  pupils,  29  ;  length  of 
the  course,  29-31,  "skipping"  in, 
30-32;  two  grades  in  a  room, 
32 ;  democracy  in,  34 ;  old  Cam- 
bridge curriculum,  35-37 ;  four  and 
six  years  course,  37  ;  study  of  lan- 
guage, 38,  41 ;  new  subjects,  38-46  ; 
arithmetic,  39 ;  geometry,  40 ;  alge- 
bra, 41 ;  reading,  43  ;  geography, 
43  ;  physics,  44. 

Greece,  importance  of  history,  80, 

Guicciardini,  dulness  of,  77. 


HARVARD  University,  experi- 
ence of  Professor  B.,  i  ;  the 
president  of,  3 ;  on  weather-proph- 
ets, 10  ;  faculty  and  overseers,  12 ; 
aids  to  Cambridge  grammar  schools, 
46 ;  teachers'  courses,  57-63  ;  in- 
structors in  Radcliffe  College,  69 ; 
Carlyle's  Cromwell  books,  85  ;  old 
methods  in  history,  91 ;  first  boat- 
race  with  Ya'e.  127 ;  football  no 
play,  131 ;  athletic  expenditures, 
132 ;  effect  of  Yale  games,  134 ; 
graduate  management  of  athletics, 
138  ;  faculty  restrictions  on  athletics, 
139;  committee  on  athletics,  145. 

High  schools,  teachers'  courses,  71. 

History,  teachers'  courses  in,  63,  (>(> ; 
how  to  study,  75-90 ;  reading  of 
75  ;  teaching  of,  75  ;  study  of,  76  ; 
must  choose  a  definite  subject,  76  ; 
criteria  of  selections,  77;  avoid 
wars,  78 ;  study  people  who  thought ; 
Greek  and  Roman,  80;  Crusades, 


IFnDea:. 


149 


ITA 
81 ;  Renaissance,  81  ;  Reformarion, 
81  ;  France,  82  ;  Stuart  period,  82  ; 
French  Revolution,  82  ;  unification  of 
Germany,  82  ;  brief  books,  83  ;  sug- 
gestive books,  83  ;  marginal  notes, 
84  ;  written  outline,  85  ;  co-ouerative 
methods,  86 ;  note-taking,  87  ;  use 
of  sources,  89  ;  summary,  90  ;  teach- 
ing ill  secondary  schools,  91,  121  ; 
old  methods,  91 ;  impovements,  92  ; 
time  spent,  93,  94,  105  ;  distribution 
of  time,  94,  95,  105;  aims,  95,  107; 
preparation  for  college,  97  ;  lecture 
systems,  97,  no  ;  recitation,  97,  109  ; 
text -books,  97,  104,  108;  topical 
method,  98,  111-114;  libraries,  99, 
104,  114  ;  use  of  books  of  reference, 
100,112;  home  reading,  100,  115  ; 
written  exercises,  loi,  in  ;  histori- 
cal geography,  loi,  116;  maps,  102, 
114,  116;  practical  effect,  103,  116  ; 
unsatisfactory  condition,  104;  an- 
cient, mediaeval,  and  modern,  105  ; 
centrifu'ral  and  centripetal  methods, 
106 ;  value  of  facts,  107  ;  bibliog- 
raphy, 1 1 7-12 1. 


ITALY,  Renaissance  in,  81  ;  unifi- 
cation of,  82. 


r  EFFERSON,     Thomas,    opinions 
J      on  architecture,  21. 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  impetus  to 
education,  16. 


KOSSUTH,  criticism  of,  in  New 
England,  i. 


LANGUAGES,  study  in  grammar 
schools,  41-43. 

I  ^atin  in  grammar  schools,  41. 

latrobe,  architect  of  the  Capitol,  2. 

Lectures  in  schools,  97,  no. 

1  ,egal  profession,  status  of,  4  ;  bar  ex- 
aminations, 12,  19. 

I. eland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University 
teachers'  courses,  56. 

I  -ibrary,  Boston,  built  by  non-experts, 
3  ;  school  libraries,  99,  104. 

Literature.    See  English. 


MANN,      Horace,      on      normal 
schools,  51. 
I' lap-drawing,  in  schools,  102,  n6. 
Maps,  use  in  schools,  102,  116. 


ROM 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 

courses  for  teachers,  56,  61. 
Mediaeval  history,  interest  of,  81  ;  time 

spent  in,  95,  105. 
Medicine,     status    of  profession,    4 ; 

choice  of  medical  professions,  22. 
Memorizing,  109. 
Methods,  cant  about,  15. 
Military  history,  not  interesting,  78. 
Ministry,  status  of  profession,  3. 
Modem  history,  study  of,  82,  94. 
Modem      languages,      in      grammar 

schools,  41-43. 


NATIONAL  Educational  Associa- 
tion, 9. 
Normal  training,  recent,  8  :  improve- 
ment in,  16;  established  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 51 ;  advantages  of  teachers' 
courses,  73. 
Note-taking,  system  of,  87-89;  in 
schools,  no. 


o 


LD  South  lectures,  no. 
Outlines,  historical,  85. 


PAWTUCKET,  teachers'  courses 
in,  70. 

Pedagogy,  teachers'  courses  in,  64. 

Physical  geography.     See  geography. 

Physics,  in  Cambridge  grammar 
schools,  44  ;  apparatus,  45  ;  Harvard 
teachers'  courses,  61,  68. 

Politics,  lack  of  experts,  2,  3. 

Presbyterian  government,  13. 

Princeton  College,  athletics,  134 ;  grad- 
uate management,  138. 

Profession,  of  teaching,  1-22  ;  status  of 
learned,  3,  4  ;  characteristics,  6. 

"Professional"  in  athletics,  125. 

Promotion,  without  examinations,  37. 

Psychology,  study  of,  52. 

Public  opinion,  interest  in  education, 
20,  24,  so. 

Public  schools,  status  of  teachers  in, 
n  ;  interest  of  colleges  in,  49.  See 
also  grammar  schools,  teachers. 


RADCLIFFE  College,   instructors' 
fees  in,  69. 
Reading,    reform    in  schools,   43,  60  ; 

historical,  100,  115. 
Reformation,  historical  importance,  81. 
Renaissance,  historical  importance,  81. 
Research,  in  schools,  in. 
Rome,  Romans  did  not  value  learning, 


ISO 


ITnDej. 


ROT 

S  ;  overthrow,  80 ;   historical  impor- 
tance, 8 1. 
Rotation  in  office,  2, 

SCHOOL-BOARDS,  advantage  of, 
19  ;  out   of  teachers'  hands,  22  ; 

power  of,  23  ;  relations  to  teachers' 

courses,  70,  72. 
Sciences,  in  grammar  schools,  44  ;  in 

schools,  61 ;  for  teachers,  61. 
Secondary   schools,    qualifications   for 

teachers,  17  ;  history  in,  91-121. 
"Skippers,"  in  Cambridge,  31,  32. 
Sources,  use  in  studying  history,  89. 
Spanish,  little  use  for,  41. 
Spelling,  teaching  of,  43. 
Summer  schools  for  teachers,  52. 
Superintendents,  should  trust  teachers 

more,  13  ;  power  of,  23. 
Switzerland,  historical  importance,  80. 


TEACHERS,  profession  of,  1-21  ; 
low  popular  estimate,  4,  11  ;  often 
a  makeshift,  6  ;  lack  of  opportunities, 
7 ;  associations,  8,  20,  50 ;  no  State 
examuiations,  12,  19 ;  too  mueh  su- 
pervised, 13  ;  conservative,  14;  cant, 
15  ;  need  of  training,  11,  16,  50  ;  well- 
off,  17  ;  departmental  instruction, 
20  ;  Teachers'  Council,  20 ;  lack  of 
influence,  22,  23,  25  ;  interest  in  re- 
forms, 27  ;  two  grades  at  once,  32  ;  of 
languages,  42  ;  of  physics,  46  ;  train- 
ing of,  46  ;  institutes,  52  ;  meetings, 
52  ;  study  of  psychology,  52. 

Text-books,  historical,  for  private 
study,  83  ;  for  schools,  97,  108,  no. 

Thornton,  Dr.  William,  i. 

Topical  method  in  history,  86,  87,  95, 
98-100,  111-114. 

Tours,  battle  of,  79, 


YAL 

Training  of  pupils,  50  ;  of  teachers  by 
colleges,  16,  49-74  ;  lack  of,  104. 

UNITED  States.  See  Ameri- 
can. 

University.     See  colleges. 

University  of  Minnesota,  56. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  56,  63. 

University  extension,  as  a  lecture 
bureau,  53  ;  not  university  work,  54  ; 
adapted  for  teachers,  55  ;  substitute 
for,  49-74. 

University  participation,  in  general, 
49-74  ;  reason  for,  55  ;  objects  and 
method,  56  ;  should  be  specific,  57  ; 
time,  58  ;  subjects,  58  ;  geometry, 
5p  ;  English,  59 ;  sciences,  61 ;  phy- 
sics, 61  ;  geography,  62  ;  botany, 
62  ;  history,  63  ;  high-school  studies, 
64 ;  pedagogy,  64 ;  methods,  64  ; 
place,  65 ;  instructors,  65  ;  illus- 
trations, 66  ;  connection  with  class- 
rooms, 68 ;  work  of  the  teachers, 
68  ;  expense,  69 ;  duty  of  the  uni- 
versities, 71  ;  how  far  appHcable,  71 ; 
duty  of  school  boards,  72  ;  advan- 
tages, 73. 

WARS,  not  interesting,  78. 
Washington,     George,     as     a 
model,  II. 
Waterloo,  battle  of,  79. 
Workingmen's  School,  33. 
Written  exercises,  in  history,  loi. 

YALE  University,  influence  of 
the  faculty,  12 ;  first  boat-race 
with  Harvard,  127  ;  athletic  expen- 
ditures, 132;  effect  of  Harvard 
games,  134  ;  regulation  of  athletics, 
i37>  138. 


PRACTICAL  ESSAYS 
ON    AMERICAN     GOVERNMENT. 

By  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Ph.D.,  of  Harvard  University, 
Author  of  "  Epoch  Maps,"  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Federal  Government,"  etc.     i2mo,  cloth,  gilt  top,  $1.50. 

Contents  :  The  Speaker  as  Premier — The  Exercise  of  the  Suf- 
frage— The  Election  of  a  President — Do  the  People  Wish  Civil 
Service  Reform  ? — The  Chilean  Controversy — A  Study  in  American 
Diplomacy — The  Colonial  Town  Meeting — The  Colonial  Shire — 
The  Rise  of  American  Cities — The  Biography  of  a  River  and  Har- 
bor Bill— The  Public  Land  Policy  of  the  United  States— Why  the 
South  was  Defeated  in  the  Civil  War — Index. 

"  Dr.  Hart  demonstrates  by  this  book,  as  we  think  no  one  else 
has  so  well  demonstrated,  the  possible  close  connection  between 
academic  study  and  practical  politics." — Atlantic  Monthly. 

"  The  book  is  a  solid,  substantial,  and  most  satisfactory  piece  of 
honest  work.  The  author  has  selected  his  sheaves  with  excellent 
judgment,  and  threshed  the  grain  out  of  them  to  the  very  best  of 
his  ability.  There  is  no  eye-service  in  it — no  paragraph  written  to 
round  out  an  article  or  help  fill  the  pages  of  a  magazine.  Prof. 
Hart  has  worked  for  his  readers  with  a  will,  and  there  is  no  reader 
so  well  informed  on  the  topics  of  the  book  that  he  will  not  find  it  in- 
teresting, suggestive,  and  instructive.  .  .  .  Take  the  masterly 
exposition  of  one  of  the  most  important — many  people  will  say  the 
most  important — of  American  public  questions,  the  exercise  of  the 
suffrage.  It  will  astonish  almost  every  reader  that  such  a  wealth 
of  thought,  research,  and  information  can  be  compressed  into  the 
limits  of  such  an  article,  and  yet  be  interesting,  clear,  and  indeed 
attractive." — The  Nation. 

"  We  have  found  nearly  all  of  them  interesting,  and  some  of  them 
suggestive.  One  quality  that  marks  the  collection  is  a  refreshing 
surprise;  we  mean  the  entire  absence  of  economic  discussion.  .  .  . 
Prof.  Hart  has  opened  a  different  field,  and  has  given  us  some  things 
that  are  fresh  and  bright  .  .  .  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  the 
thoughtful  citizens." — The  Critic. 

"  Practical  essays  are  difficult  undertakings  ;  it  is  hard  to  alv^^ays 
distinguish  between  fact  and  theory,  and  to  present  the  one  effect- 
ively and  eliminate  the  other  successfully.  Prof.  Hart  seems  to 
have  attained  a  high  degree  of  proficiency  in  this  accomplishment, 
and  his  '  Practical  Essays  on  American  Government'  will  commend 
themselves  to  statesman,  citizen,  and  student  alike.  .  .  .  The 
essays  are  all  remarkable  for  the  foresight  and  intuition  they 
display." — Nassau  Literary  Magazine. 


LOHGMAHS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  18  East  Sixteentli  Street,  Hew  York. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  ^  CO: S  PUBLICATIONS. 

A    GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    POLITICAL 
HISTORY   OF   EUROPE. 

By  Ernest  Lavisse,  Professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  Translated,  with  the 
Author's  sanction,  by  Charles  Gross,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  History, 
Harvard  University.     i2mo,  200  pages.     With  Index.     $1.25. 

The  title  of  Professor  Lavisse's  work  is  Vue  Generate  de  I'Histoire  Politique 
de  i' Europe.  (Third  edition.  Paris:  Armand  Colin  &  Co.  1890.)  While  giv- 
ing essential  facts  of  universal  history,  he  aims,  above  all,  to  describe  the  for- 
madon  and  political  development  of  the  states  of  Europe,  and  to  indicate  the 
his  orical  causes  of  their  present  condition  and  mutual  relations.  In  other 
wods,  he  shows  how  the  existing  political  divisions  of  Europe,  with  their 
peculiar  tendencies,  were  created.  To  accompUsh  this,  it  was  necessary  to 
bei,in  with  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  played  an  important  part 
in  Europe  long  after  their  death  ;  then,  to  show  the  potent  influence  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  and  of  the  Papacy  in  the  Middle  Ages  ;  next,  to  point  out 
how  these  two  great  ideal  powers  were  superseded  by  modern  Europe,  an 
organic  entity  composed  of  various  states,  new  and  old,  most  of  which  were 
dominated  by  the  monarchical  idea ;  and,  finally,  how,  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  new  principle  of  nationality  and  the  power  of  the  people  have  sup- 
plaated  the  old  monarchical  element.  The  ability  of  Professor  Lavisse  to  com- 
press the  essence  of  a  great  event  or  sequence  of  events  into  a  few  comprehen- 
sive and  expressive  sentences,  has  enabled  him  to  accomplish  his  difficult  task 
with  signal  success.  At  any  rate,  this  is  the  opinion  of  the  Translator,  and 
hence  he  believes  that  the  work  will  prove  useful  to  general  readers,  as  well  as 
to  college  students,  in  America  and  England. 

\*  A  prospectus  with  specimen  pages  sent  on  application. 

'•  This  is  an  admirable  little  book,  and  Dr.  Gross,  in  selecting  and  translat-. 
ing  it,  has  rendered  good  service  to  historical  education.  M.  Lavisse,  who  is 
known  by  his  recent  work  on  the  history  of  Prussia,  brings  to  the  difficult  task 
here  achieved  accurate  knowledge  combined  with  a  fine  sense  of  proportion 
and  value,  and  much  skill  in  tracing  the  movements  of  great  currents  under 
the  criscross  play  of  local  and  momentary  surface  commotion.  He  writes  for 
the  most  part  quite  simply  and  clearly,  with  a  true  conversational  ease,  so  that 
the  reader  comes  to  think  the  writing  of  philosophical  history  the  easiest  thing 
in  he  world;  yet  if  any  one  will  try  to  express  in  no  more  pages  than  suffice 
for  M.  Lavisse  the  nature  of  the  Roman  Empire,  or  the  rise  of  Christianity,  or 
the  growth  of  Prussian  power  of  French  nationality,  he  may  not  be  readily 
satisfied  with  the  result.  With  all  its  ease  the  style  has  a  nervous  suggestive- 
ness  provocative  of  thought,  so  that  the  book  is  one  of  those  that  repay  a 
second  reading  better  than  the  first,  and  a  third  better  than  the  second.  If 
Professor  Lavisse  lectures  thus,  his  hearers  must  be  accounted  fortunate.  .  . 
The  translation  adheres  closely  to  the  original,  which  it  presents  in  style  as  well 
as  in  meaning." — The  Nation^  New  York. 

V  For  other  books  dealing  with  Political  History,  see  Longmans,  Green,  6» 
C<?'f  Catalogue  of  Educational  Works. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  15  East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &-  CO: S  PUBLICATIONS. 


EPOCHS   OF   AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

MESSRS.  LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.  have  the  pleasure  to  state 
that  they  are  now  publishing  a  short  series  of  books  treating  of  the  history 
of  America,  under  the  general  title  Epochs  of  American  History.  The 
series  is  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Assistant 
Professor  of  History  in  Harvard  College,  who  has  also  prepared  all  the  maps 
for  the  several  volumes.  Each  volume  contains  about  300  pages,  similar  in 
size  and  style  to  the  page  of  the  volumes  in  Messrs.  Longmans'  series, 
*  Epochs  of  Modern  History,'  with  full  marginal  analysis,  working  bibliogra- 
phies, maps,  and  index.  The  volumes  are  issued  separately,  and  each  is 
complete  in  itself.  The  volumes  now  ready  provide  a  continuous  history 
of  the  United  States  from  the  foundation  of  the  Colonies  to  the  present 
time,  suited  to  and  intended  for  class  use  as  well  as  for  general  reading  and 
reference. 

*^*  The  volumes  of  this  series  already  issued  have  been  adopted  for  use  as  text- 
books in  nearly  all  the  leading  Colleges  and  in  many  Normal  Schools  and  other 
institutions.  A  prospectus,  showing  Contents  and  scope  of  each  volume,  specimen 
pages,  etc. ,  will  be  sent  on  application  to  the  Publishers. 


I.     THE  COLONIES,  1492-1750. 

By  Reuben  Gold  Thwaites,  Secretary  of  the  State  Historical  Society  of 
Wisconsin  j  author  of  "  Historic  Waterways,"  etc.  With  four  colored 
maps.  pp.  xviii.-30i.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

CORNELL    university. 

"  I  beg  leave  to  acknowledge  your  courtesy  in  sending  me  a  copy  of  the  first 
volume  in  the  series  of  '  Epochs  of  American  History,'  which  I  have  read  with 
great  interest  and  satisfaction.  I  am  pleased,  as  everyone  must  be,  with  the 
mechanical  execution  of  the  book,  with  the  maps,  and  with  the  fresh  and  valua- 
ble •  Suggestions  '  and  '  References. '  .  .  .  .  The  work  itself  appears  to 
me  to  be  quite  remarkable  for  its  comprehensiveness,  and  it  presents  a  vast 
array  of  subjects  in  a  way  that  is  admirably  fair,  clear  and  orderly." — Professor 
Moses  Coit  Tyler,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

WILLIAMS    college. 

"  It  is  just  the  book  needed  for  college  students,  not  too  brief  to  be  uninter- 
esting, admirable  in  its  plan,  and  well  furnished  with  references  to  accessible 
authorities." — Professor  Richard  A.  Rice,  Williamstown,  Mass. 

vassar  college. 
"  Perhaps  the  best  recommendation  of  '  Thwaites'  American  Colonies  '  is 
the  fact  that  the  day  after  it  was  received  I  ordered  copies  for  class-room  use. 
The  book  is  admirable."— Professor  Lucy  M.  Salmon,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

"  All  that  could  be  desired.  This  volume  is  more  like  a  fair  treatment  of  the 
whole  subject  of  the  colonies  than  any  work  of  the  sort  yet  produced.'' 

—  The  Critic. 

"  The  subject  is  virtually  a  fresh  one  as  approached  by  Mr.  Thwaites.  It  is 
a  pleasure  to  call  especial  attention  to  some  most  helpful  bibliographical  notes 
provided  at  the  head  of  each  chapter.'' — The  Nation. 


I-ONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  15  East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  6-  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 


EPOCHS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

II.     FORMATION   OF  THE   UNION,   1750-1829. 

By  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Ph.D.  Assistant  Professor  of  History  in 
Harvard  University,  Member  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 
Author  of  **  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Federal  Government," 
"Epoch  Maps,"  etc.  With  five  colored  maps.  pp.  XX.-278.  Cloth. 
$1.25. 

The  second  volume  of  the  Epochs  of  American  History  aims  to  follow 
out  the  principles  laid  down  for  "The  Colonies," — the  study  of  causes 
rati  er  than  of  events,  the  development  of  the  American  nation  out  of  scattered 
and  inharmonious  colonies.  The  throwing  off  of  English  control,  the  growth 
out  of  narrow  political  conditions,  the  struggle  against  foreign  domination,  and 
the  extension  of  popular  government,  are  all  parts  of  the  uninterrupted  process 
of  tJie  Formation  of  the  Union. 

LELAND    STANFORD    JR.     UNIVERSITY. 

' '  The  large  and  sweeping  treatment  of  the  subject,  which  shows  the  true  re- 
lations of  the  events  preceding  and  following  the  revolution,  to  the  revolution 
itself,  is  a  real  addition  to  the  literature  of  the  subject;  while  the  bibliography 
prefixed  to  each  chapter,  adds  incalculably  to  the  value  of  the  work." — Mary 
Sheldon  Barnes,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

•  It  is  a  careful  and  conscientious  study  of  the  period  and  its  events,  and 
should  find  a  place  among  the  text-books  of^our  public  schools." 

— Boston  Transcript. 

"  Professor  Hart  has  compressed  a  vast  deal  of  information  into  his  volume, 
and  makes  many  things  most  clear  and  striking.  His  maps,  showing  the  terri- 
torial growth  of  the  United  States,  are  extremely  interesting." 

— JVnu  York  Times. 

"  .  The  causes  of  the  Revolution  are  clearly  and  cleverly  condensed  into 
a  few  pages.  .  .  The  maps  in  the  work  are  singularly  useful  even  to  adults. 
Theie  are  five  of  these,  which  are  alone  worth  the  price  of  the  volume." 

— Magazine  of  American  History. 

"  The  formation  period  of  our  nation  is  treated  with  much  care  and  with 
great  precision.  Each  chapter  is  prefaced  with  copious  references  to  authori- 
ties, vhich  are  valuable  to  the  student  who  desires  to  pursue  his  reading  more 
extensively.  There  are  five  valuable  maps  showing  the  growth  of  our  country 
by  successive  stages  and  repeated  acquisition  of  territory." 

— Boston  Advertiser. 

"  Dr.  Hart  is  not  only  a  master  of  the  art  of  condensation,  .  .  .  he  is 
what  is  even  of  greater  importance,  an  interpreter  of  history.  He  perceivei 
the  logic  of  historic  events  ;  hence,  in  his  condensation,  he  does  not  neglect 
proportion,  and  more  than  once  he  gives  the  student  valuable  clues  to  the 
solution  of  historical  problems." — Atlantic  Monthly. 

"A  valuable  volume  of  a  valuable  series.  The  author  has  written  with  a 
full  knowledge  of  his  subject,  and  we  have  little  to  say  except  in  praise." 

— English  Historical  Review. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  15  East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York. 


LO^GMAMS,  GREEI^,   &^  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 


EPOCHS   OF   AMERICAN   HISTORY. 


III.  DIVISION   AND    RE-UNION,  1829-1889. 

By  WooDROw  Wilson,  Ph  D  ,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Jurisprudence  in 
Princeton  College  ;  Author  of  "Congressional  Government,'*  "The 
State — Elements  of  Historical  and  Practical  Politics,"  etc.,  etc.  Wiih 
five  colored  Maps.     346  pages.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

"  We  regret  that  we  have  not  space  for  more  quotations  from  this  uncom 
monly  strong,  impartial,  interesting  book.  Giving  only  enough  facts  to 
elucidate  the  matter  discussed,  it  omits  no  important  questions.  It  furnishes 
the  reader  clear-cut  views  of  the  right  and  the  wrong  of  them  all.  It  gives  ad- 
mirable pen-portraits  of  the  great  personages  of  the  period  with  as  much  free- 
dom from  bias,  and  as  much  pains  to  be  just,  as  if  the  author  were  delineating 
Pericles,  or  Alcibiades,  Sulla,  or  Caesar.  Dr.  Wilson  has  earned  the  gratitude  of 
seekers  after  truth  by  his  masterly  production."— A^.  C.  University  Magazine. 

"  This  admirable  little  volume  is  one  of  the  few  books  which  nearly  meet  our 
ideal  of  history.  It  is  causal  history  in  the  truest  sense,  tracing  the  workings  of 
latent  influences  and  far-reaching  conditions  of  their  outcome  in  striking  fact, 
yet  the  whole  current  of  events  is  kept  in  view,  and  the  great  personalities  of 
the  time,  the  nerve-centers  of  history,  live  intensely  and  in  due  proportion  in 
these  pages.  We  do  not  know  the  equal  of  this  book  for  a  brief  and  trust- 
worthy, and,  at  the  same  time,  a  brilliantly  written  and  sufficient  history  of  these 
sixty  years.  We  heartily  commend  it,  not  only  for  general  reading,  but  as  an 
admirable  text-book." — Post- Graduate  and  Wooster  Quarterly. 

"  Considered  as  a  general  history  of  the  United  States  from  1829  to  1889, 
his  book  is  marked  by  excellent  sense  of  proportion,  extensive  knowledge,  im- 
partiaUty  of  judgment,  unusual  power  of  summarizing,  and  an  acute  political 
sense.     Few  writers  can  more  vividly  set  forth  the  views  of  parties." 

— Atlantic  Monthly. 

"  Students  of  United  States  history  may  thank  Mr.  Wilson  for  an  extreme- 
ly clear  and  careful  rendering  of  a  period  very  difficult  to  handle  .  .  .  they 
will  find  themselves  materially  aided  in  easy  comprehension  of  the  poUtical 
situation  of  the  country  by  the  excellent  maps." — JV.  Y.  Times. 

"  Professor  Wilson  writes  in  a  clear  and  forcible  style.  .  .  .  The  bibli- 
ographical references  at  the  head  of  each  chapter  are  both  well  selected  and 
well  arranged,  and  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  work,  which  appears  to  be 
especially  designed  for  use  in  instruction  in  colleges  and  preparatory  schools." 

—  Yale  Review. 

"  It  is  written  in  a  style  admirably  clear,  vigorous,  and  attractive,  a  thorough 
grasp  of  the  subject  is  shown,  and  the  development  of  the  theme  is  lucid  and 
orderly,  while  the  tone  is  judicial  and  fair,  and  the  deductions  sensible  and 
dispassionate — so  far  as  we  can  see.  ...  It  would  be  difficult  to  construct 
a  better  manual  of  the  subject  than  this,  and  it  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  this 
useful  series." — Hartford  Courant. 

".  .  .  One  of  the  most  valuable  historical  works  that  has  appeared  ir 
many  years.  The  delicate  period  of  our  country's  history,  with  which  thi; 
work  is  largely  taken  up,  is  treated  by  the  author  with  an  impartiality  that  i. 
almost  unique. " — Columbia  Law  Times. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  15  East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York 


LOXG MAN'S,   GREEN   &=  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


ENGLISH   HISTORY   FOR   AMERICANS. 

By  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  Author  of  •* Young  Folks'  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,"  eic,  and  Edward  Channing,  Assistant 
Professor  of  History  in  Harvard  University.  With  77  Illustrations,  6 
Colored  Maps,  Bibliography,  a  Chronological  Table  of  Contents,  and 
Index.     i2mo.     Pp.  xxxii-334.     Teachers'  price,  $1.20. 

The  name  "  English  History  for  Americans,"  which  suggests  the  key-note  of 
this  book,  is  based  on  the  simple  fact  that  it  is  not  the  practice  of  American 
readers,  old  or  young,  to  give  to  English  history  more  than  a  limited  portion  of 
theii  hours  of  study.  ...  It  seems  clear  that  such  readers  will  use  their 
time  to  the  best  advantage  if  they  devote  it  mainly  to  those  events  in  English 
annrls  which  have  had  the  most  direct  influence  on  the  history  and  institutions 
of  tlieir  own  land.  .  .  .  The  authors  of  this  book  have  therefore  boldly 
ventured  to  modify  in  their  narrative  the  accustomed  scale  of  proportion  ;  while 
it  has  been  their  wish,  in  the  treatment  of  every  detail,  to  accept  the  best  re- 
sult of  modern  English  investigation,  and  especially  to  avoid  all  unfair  oi 
one-sided  judgments.    .     ,    .     Extracts  from  Author* s  Preface. 

DR.    W.    T.    HARRIS,    U.    S.    COMMISSIONER   OF  EDUCATION. 

'■  I  take  great  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  the  book,  and  be- 
lieve; it  to  be  the  best  introduction  to  Enghsh  history  hitherto  made  for  the  use 
of  schools.  It  is  just  what  is  needed  in  the  school  and  in  the  family.  Ii  is  the 
first  history  of  England  that  I  have  s^en  which  gives  proper  attention  to  socio- 
logy and  the  evolution  of  political  ideas,  without  neglecting  what  is  picturesque 
and  interesting  to  the  popular  taste.  The  device  of  placing  the  four  historical 
map  3  at  the  beginning  and  end  deserves  special  mention  for  its  convenience. 
Allow  me  to  congratulate  you  on  the  publication  of  so  excellent  a  text-book." 

ROXBURY  LATIN  SCHOOL. 

" .  .  .  The  most  noticeable  and  commendable  feature  in  the  book  seems 
to  b(;  its  Unity.  ...  I  felt  the  same  reluctance  to  lay  the  volume  down 
.  .  .  that  one  experiences  in  reading  a  great  play  or  a  well-constructed 
novel.  Several  things  besides  the  unity  conspire  thus  seductively  to  lead  the 
reader  on.  The  page  is  open  and  attractive,  the  chapters  are  short,  the  type 
is  large  and  clear,  the  pictures  are  well  chosen  and  significant,  a  surprising 
number  of  anecdotes  told  in  a  crisp  and  masterful  manner  throw  valuable  side- 
lights on  the  main  narrative  ;  the  philosophy  of  history  is  undeniably  there,  but 
sugar-coated,  and  the  graceful  style  would  do  credit  to  a  Macaulay.  I  shall 
immediately  recommend  it  for  use  in  our  school."— Dr.  D.  O.  S.  Lowell. 

LAWRENCEVILLE   SCHOOL. 

"  In  answer  to  your  note  of  February  23d  I  beg  to  say  that  we  have  intro- 
duced your  Higginson's  English  History  into  our  graduating  class  and  are 
muc:i  pleased  with  it.  Therefore  whatever  endorsement  I,  as  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten,  could  give  the  book  has  already  been  given  by  my  action 
in  pi  icing  it  in  our  classes." — James  C.  Mackenzie,  Lawrenceville,  N.  J. 

ANN   ARBOR   HIGH    SCHOOL. 

"  It  seems  to  me  the  book  will  do  for  English  history  in  this  country  what 
the  '  Young  Folks'  History  of  the  United  States '  has  done  for  the  history  of  our 
own  country— and  I  consider  this  high  praise." 

— T.  G.  Pattengill,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO.,  15  East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York. 


■TTi^T^xTTA     T.TRT?AT?.V 


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